I 


Vol.  XXXII 
No.  1 


PSYCHOL 0 QICAL  RE  VIE  W  P UBLICA  TIONS 


Whole  No.  143 
1922 


Psychological  Monographs 

EDITED  BY 

JAMES  ROWLAND  ANGELL,  Yale  University 
HOWARD  C.  WARREN,  Princeton  University  ( Review ) 

JOHN  B.  WATSON,  New  York  (/.  of  Exp.  Psychol.) 

SHEPHERD  I.  FRANZ,  Govt.  Hosp.  for  Insane  ( Bulletin )  and 
MADISON  BENTLEY,  University  of  Illinois  (Index) 


Memory  Defects  in  the  Organic 

Psychoses 

An  Experimental  Study 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANTS,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D. 

Washington,  D.  C. 

(From  the  Psychological  Laboratory  of  St.  Elisabeth’s  Hospital, 

Washington,  D.  C.) 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  REVIEW  COMPANY 

PRINCETON,  N.  J. 
and  LANCASTER,  PA. 

Agents:  G.  E.  STECHERT  &  CO.,  London  (2  Star  Yard,  Carey  St.,  W.C.) 

Paris  (16  rue  de  Conde) 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The  writer  wishes  to  express  his  gratitude  to  Dr.  Shepherd 
Ivory  Franz,  Director  of  laboratories  of  St.  Elizabeth’s  Hospital, 
Washington,  D.  C.,  for  his  valuable  direction  and  assistance 
throughout  this  experimental  study.  He  also  wishes  to  thank 
the  faculty  and  students  of  Clifton  Service  School  for  their  kind 
and  helpful  cooperation  in  the  experiments  on  normal  subjects. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2019  with  funding  from 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  Library 


https://archive.org/details/memorydefectsinoOOIilj 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 


Introduction  .  i 

I.  Preliminary  Experiments  .  4 


1.  Span  of  Memory 

2.  Retention 

3.  Frequency 

4.  Retroactive  Inhibition 

II.  Method  . . .  8 

1.  Material 

2.  Apparatus 

3.  Procedure 

A.  General 

B.  The  Experiments 

a.  Material 

b.  Intervals 

c.  Number  of  Cards 

d.  Time  of  Exposure 

e.  Frequency 

C.  Experimental  Procedure. 


4.  Method  of  Scoring 

III.  Experiments  with  Normal  Subjects .  18 

IV.  Abnormal  Subjects  .  24 

V.  Individual  Results .  29 


1.  Variation  in  Time  of  Exposure 

2.  Variation  in  Number  of  Cards 

3.  Colored  Pictures 

4.  Repeated  and  Intervening  Stimuli 

5.  Primacy  and  Recency 


v 


VI 


CONTENTS 


VI.  Comparisons  and  Conclusions 

1.  Apprehension 

2.  Span  of  Memory 

3.  Retention 

4.  Recognition  and  Recall 

5.  Primacy  and  Recency 

6.  Conclusions 


References 


INTRODUCTION 


It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  more  or  less  marked  memory  de¬ 
fects  appear  in  the  organic  psychoses.  In  general  paresis  the  in¬ 
cipient  symptoms  include  memory  defects  which  in  subsequent 
stages  develop  into  utter  failure  of  memory.  There  is  loss  of 
memory  in  senile  dementia  and  in  arterio-sclerosis,  as  also  in 
Korsakow’s  psychosis.  The  memory  is  noticeably  affected  in 
alcoholic  dementia  and  in  other  toxic  psychoses,  in  the  psychoses 
associated  with  cerebral  syphilis  and  apoplexy,  in  epileptic  de¬ 
mentia,  myxoedema,  and  so  forth.  Subjects  will  be  found  who 
are  unable  to  remember  practically  the  whole  of  their  past  life. 
Others,  while  retaining  memory  of  the  more  remote  past,  have 
lost  totally  or  almost  totally  the  memory  of  the  more  immediate 
past,  usually  of  the  period  introduced  by  the  advent  of  their 
brain  disease  or  lesion.  Some  thus  afflicted  remember  certain 
events,  they  know  their  name  and  age  and  are  oriented  in  regard 
to  time,  place,  and  persons  surrounding  them,  while  others  show 
a  more  or  less  profound  ignorance  even  of  these  things. 

It  is  possible,  then,  to  give  a  fairly  accurate  clinical  description 
of  the  memory  defects  associated  with  organic  psychoses  by 
classifying  them  as  circumscribed  or  general,  retrograde  or  ante¬ 
rograde  amnesias.1 

Knowledge  of  the  more  intimate  nature  of  these  memory  de¬ 
fects  may  be  hoped  for  only  through  experimental  investigation. 
The  quantity  of  work  done  to  date  in  this  field  has  been  very 
meager.  In  1913  Boring  published  a  monograph  on  Learning  in 
Dementia  Precox .2  His  experiments  included  tests  of  attention, 
tests  of  memory  span  with  digits  presented  both  orally  and  vis¬ 
ually,  the  Heilbronner  apperception  test,  kinaesthetic  memory 
tests,  cancellation  and  maze  tests.  His  primary  object  was  to 
establish  the  subjects’  facility  for  learning.  Hart  and  Spearman 
published  an  account  of  Mental  Tests  of  Dementia  in  1915. 3 

1  White,  William  A.  Outline  of  Psychiatry,  1919,  p.  78. 

2  Psychol.  Monog.,  June,  1913,  Vol.  XV. 

3J.  Ahnor.  Psychol.,  1914-15,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  217  et  seq. 


2 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANTS 


They  employed  the  method  of  paired  associations  and  cancella¬ 
tion  tests.  In  a  study  of  the  correlation  between  memory  and 
perception  Moore  experimented  on  a  number  of  inmates  of 
asylums  suffering  from  paresis,  senile  dementia,  Korsakow’s  psy¬ 
chosis,  chronic  alcoholism  and  paralysis.4  He  found  a  general 
tendency  for  both  memory  and  perception  to  deteriorate  together, 
although  in  some  cases  one  of  these  functions  was  affected  with¬ 
out  the  other.  In  1920  Dr.  Achilles  published  a  monograph  on 
Experimnetal  Studies  in  Recall  and  Recognition  containing  a 
chapter  on  memory  tests  of  insane  patients.5  The  subjects  rep¬ 
resented  the  Korsakow  psychosis,  general  paralysis,  arterio¬ 
sclerosis,  senile  dementia,  cerebral  syphilis,  and  undifferentiated 
psychoses.  The  general  results  of  this  study  are  that  ‘‘there  is 
little  difference  in  recall  among  the  patients  suffering  from  gen¬ 
eral  paralysis  and  arterio-sclerosis.  In  recognition,  there  is  no 
difference  except  in  the  case  of  words  for  which  the  arterio¬ 
sclerosis  patients  score  higher.  (Omitting  one  patient  who  was 
recovering)  one  finds  the  scores  among  the  Korsakoffs  lower 
than  those  among  the  general  paralysis  and  arterio-sclerosis 
cases.  These  patients  were  less  able  to  attempt  the  tasks.  There 
is  no  striking  difference  between  the  way  the  diseases  affect  re¬ 
call  and  recognition.”6 

The  psychological  problems  in  the  memory  defects  associated 
with  organic  psychoses  are  complex.  Memory  depends  upon  two 
factors,  apprehension  and  retention.  Moreover,  as  Kennedy  and 
others  point  out,  there  are  two  “phenomena”  of  memory,  recog¬ 
nition  and  reproduction.  We  distinguish  memory  according  to 
the  sense  organs  involved,  thus  we  speak  of  visual,  auditory,  and 
kinaesthetic  memory.  A  further  distinction  is  made  between  im¬ 
mediate  and  mediate  memory.  The  span  of  memory,  or  the  num¬ 
ber  of  items  which  can  be  remembered,  enters  as  a  factor  in  con¬ 
nection  with  apprehension  and  retention.  Three  general  condi- 

4  Moore,  Thomas  Vernon,  The  Correlation  between  Memory  and  Percep¬ 
tion  in  the  Presence  of  Diffuse  Cortical  Degeneration.  Psychol.  Monog., 
1919,  No.  120. 

5  Archives  of  Psychol.,  1920,  No.  44. 

6  Op.  cit.,  p.  64. 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


3 


tions  influence  the  memory  of  past  experiences,  recency,  vividness, 
and  frequency.  That  of  recency  partly  relates  to  the  factor  of 
retention,  partly  to  the  order  or  place  in  which  an  item  is  pre¬ 
sented  in  a  series.  Vividness  implies  more  than  mere  intensity 
of  the  stimulus,  it  is  also  concerned  with  the  mental  attitude  of 
the  subject.  Frequency  is  measured  in  the  number  of  times  a 
stimulus  is  repeated.  These  various  factors,  “phenomena,”  kinds 
of  memory,  and  conditions  must  be  considered  separately  to  de¬ 
termine  more  exactly  the  nature  of  memory  defects. 

The  present  investigation  was  confined  to  anterograde  am¬ 
nesia,  or  the  inability  of  the  subject  to  store  up  memories.  More¬ 
over,  it  was  limited  chiefly  to  visual  memory;  nevertheless  a  cer¬ 
tain  measure  of  comparison  was  provided  by  employing  on  the 
one  hand  material  for  visual  together  with  auditory  and  kin- 
aesthetic  memory,  and  on  the  other  material  for  only  visual 
and  kinaesthetic  memory.  The  two  kinds  of  material  also  pro¬ 
vided  for  the  distinction  between  immediate  and  mediate  memory. 
Reproduction  was  limited  to  the  method  of  verbal  recall. 

The  questions  which  the  present  investigation  has  aimed  to 
answer  may  be  summarized  as  follows.  Is  the  amnesia  due  to 
faulty  apprehension,  faulty  retention,  or  to  both?  To  what  de¬ 
gree  does  the  defect  affect  recognition  and  reproduction  respec¬ 
tively?  What  is  the  relation  of  the  defect  to  different  kinds  of 
visual  stimuli?  Does  the  defect  affect  the  span  of  memory? 
What  is  the  influence  of  primacy  and  recency,  vividness,  and  fre¬ 
quency  respectively  on  the  memory  of  the  defective?  Does  the 
memory  defect  manifest  itself  similarly  in  different  individuals? 
How  does  the  memory  of  the  defective  compare  with  that  of 
“normal”  individuals? 


I.  PRELIMINARY  EXPERIMENTS 


The  material  used  in  the  preliminary  experiments  consisted  of 
half-tone  pictures  and  of  irregular  figures,  mounted  on  cards 
3^"  x  4"  and  arranged  in  pairs  so  that  the  two  cards  of  a  pair 
were  similar  without  being  alike.  Three,  five,  or  more  cards  of 
different  pairs  were  presented  in  succession,  about  one  second 
each,  with  intervals  of  about  two  seconds,  and  the  subject  se¬ 
lected  those  he  had  seen  from  a  simultaneous  exposure  of  the 
shown  cards  with  the  remaining  cards  of  the  same  pairs.  Further 
description  of  material  and  method  will  be  found  in  the  section 
on  method  (pp.  8  et  seq.).  Three  subjects,  McG,  E-n,  and  H-n 
were  employed. 

1.  Span  of  Memory 

A  number  of  tests  were  made  to  find  the  approximate  number 
of  cards  to  the  set  which  could  be  recognized  immediately  after 
presentation  with  a  proportion  of  error  suitable  for  experimental 
purposes. 

Experiments  with  Pictures.  McG  obtained  better  results  with 
5  than  with  3  cards  to  the  set,  20  tests  with  5-card  sets  giving 
66  R.,  1  H.  R.,  3  H.  W.,  3  W.,  and  2  N.  from  75  T.1  In  the 
first  five  the  results  were  lower  than  in  the  remaining  tests,  due 
doubtlessly  to  the  subject’s  lack  of  familiarity  with  the  experi¬ 
ment. 

E-n  obtained  better  results  with  3  than  with  5  cards  to  the  set, 
16  tests  with  3-card  sets  giving  81  per  cent  R.  and  10  tests  with 
5-card  sets  66  per  cent  R.  In  the  latter  tests  the  score  was  33  R., 
2  H.R.,  2  H.W.,  3  W.,  and  10  N.  from  50  T. 

H-n.  Tests  with  5-card  sets  resulted  in  only  right  selections. 
In  10  tests  with  10-card  sets  the  score  was  92  R.,  2  H.W.,  4  W., 
and  2  N.  from  100  T. 

1  The  letters,  to  be  used  in  subsequent  tables,  signify : — R.  right,  W.  wrong, 
N.  no  selection;  H.R.  right  after  hesitation,  H.W.  wrong  after  hesitation; 
T.  total  number  of  cards  exposed. 


4 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


5 


Experiments  with  Figures.  The  figures  consisted  of  four 
kinds  of  material,  black  irregular  and  colored  irregular  figures, 
straight  lines,  and  ink  blots.  Each  kind  formed  a  separte  series. 

McG.  Results  with  3-card  sets  were  superior  to  those  ob¬ 
tained  with  5-card  sets.  Ink  blots  and  straight  lines  gave  equal 
results,  superior  to  those  with  colored  figures;  the  lowest  results 
were  obtained  with  black  figures.  In  experiments  with  5-card 
sets  including  5  tests  for  each  kind  of  material,  the  score  was 
48  R.,  3  H.R.,  2  H.W.,  40  W.,  and  7  N.  from  100  T. 

H-n.  In  10  tests  with  5-card  sets  of  colored  figures  the  score 
was  38  R.  and  12  W.  from  50  T.,  and  in  5  tests  with  10-card 
sets  of  straight  lines  35  R.  and  15  W.  from  50  T. 

These  results,  although  obtained  for  the  purpose  of  making 
suitable  selection  for  the  main  part  of  the  work,  indicate  that 
the  span  of  memory  varies  greatly  with  different  individuals  and 
in  less  degree  with  different  materials  for  the  same  individual. 

2.  Retention 

A  series  of  tests  were  made  for  recognition  with  a  short  period 
of  time  elapsing  between  presentation  and  selection.  This  inter¬ 
val  was  counted  from  the  exposure  of  the  last  card  in  a  series. 

Experiments  with  Pictures.  McG.  5-card  sets  were  used.  10 
tests  with  an  interval  of  30"  between  exposure  and  selection  re¬ 
sulted  in  41  R.  and  9  W.  from  50  T.  10  additional  tests  were 
made,  five  with  an  interval  of  30"  and  five  with  an  interval  of 
60"  between  exposure  and  selection.  The  results  were : — with 
30"  interval  15  R.,  2  H.  R.,  6  W.,  and  2  N.  from  25  T.,  and  with 
60"  interval  20  R.  and  5  W.  from  25  T.  In  the  20  tests  there  is 
a  total  of  76  per  cent  R.  The  immediate  recognition  tests,  with 
exclusion  of  the  first  five  which  served  to  familiarize  the  subject 
with  the  experiments,  gave  88  per  cent  R.  The  difference  is  12 
per  cent  R.  The  increase  in  the  interval  between  exposure  and 
selection  from  30"  to  60"  did  not  reduce  the  results. 

E-n.  10  tests  were  made  with  5-card  sets  and  with  an  interval 
of  60"  between  exposure  and  selection.  The  number  of  R.  was 
the  same  as  for  immediate  recognition. 

H-n.  Tests  with  5-card  sets  and  with  an  interval  of  60"  be- 


6 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANTS 


tween  exposure  and  selection  resulted  in  only  right  selections. 
5  tests  with  io-card  sets  and  with  an  interval  of  60"  gave  86  per 
cent  R.  as  against  92  per  cent  R.  in  the  immediate  recognition 
tests. 

Experiments  with  Figures.  McG.  In  tests  with  3-card  sets 
and  with  an  interval  of  60"  between  exposure  and  selection  the 
results  were  inferior  to  those  obtained  in  immediate  recognition 
tests.  In  experiments  with  5-card  sets  including  5  tests  for  each 
kind  of  material  the  score  was  54  R.  and  46  W.  from  100  T. 
Comparing  this  score  with  that  in  immediate  recognition  we  find 
that  the  former  is  higher  by  6  per  cent  both  in  R.  and  in  W., 
with  an  absence  of  other  than  R.  and  W.  selections. 

H-n  was  tested  only  for  colored  figures.  10  tests  of  5  cards 
each  and  with  an  interval  of  60"  between  exposure  and  selection 
gave  38  R.  and  12  W.  from  50  T.  which  is  identical  with  the 
result  in  the  corresponding  experiment  for  immediate  recogni¬ 
tion. 

These  results  indicate  that  while  a  lapse  of  60"  between  ex¬ 
posure  and  selection  tends  to  reduce  the  results,  nevertheless  this 
tendency  is  not  sufficiently  general  nor  sufficiently  marked  for  ex¬ 
perimental  purposes. 

3.  Frequency 

McG  alone  was  tested  for  delayed  recognition  in  a  series  of 
experiments  in  which  the  exposure  of  5  cards  after  the  manner 
of  the  previous  experiments  was  repeated  with  an  interval  of 
about  2 "  between  repetitions. 

Experiments  with  Pictures.  10  tests  with  5  repetitions  and 
with  an  interval  of  30"  between  the  last  exposure  and  selection 
gave  48  R.  and  2  W.  from  50  T.  10  similar  tests  in  which  the 
interval,  however,  was  60"  gave  48  R.,  1  H.  R.,  and  1  W.  from 
50  T.  There  is  a  total  of  96  per  cent  R.  as  against  76  per  cent  R. 
in  the  corresponding  experiments  without  repetition. 

Experiments  with  Figures.  Tests  with  5  repetitions  gave  the 
same  results  as  were  obtained  in  experiments  without  repetition. 
The  subject  became  drowsy  during  the  experiments.  With  only 
3  repetitions  and  with  an  interval  of  60"  between  the  last  ex- 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


7 


posure  and  selection  the  average  results  for  the  different  kinds 
of  figures  show  an  increase  of  15  per  cent  R.  over  those  in  ex¬ 
periments  without  repetition. 

4.  Retroactive  Inhibition 

A  few  experiments  performed  with  McG  in  which  a  second 
set  of  cards  was  presented  in  the  interval  between  exposure  and 
selection  of  the  primary  set  failed  to  show  a  derogatory  influ¬ 
ence  of  retroactive  inhibition. 


II.  METHOD 
i.  Material 

The  material  used  in  the  present  investigation  has  already 
been  briefly  described  in  the  account  of  preliminary  experiments. 
It  consisted  of  two  main  groups,  pictures  of  objects  and  irregular 
figures. 

The  pictures  were  of  two  kinds,  colored  and  half-tone  pictures, 
arranged  in  separate  series  and  mounted  on  white  cards  3*4"  x 
4".  They  were  gathered  from  illustrated  magazines  and  com¬ 
mercial  catalogues  and  represent  familiar  objects  such  as  men, 
women,  and  children  in  different  situations,  domestic  and  wild 
animals,  articles  of  clothing,  furniture  and  household  articles, 
farm  implements,  fruits,  flowers,  and  vegetables,  houses,  boats, 
vehicles,  etc. 

There  were  four  kinds  of  irregular  figures,  black  and  colored 
figures  cut  from  paper,  straight  lines  drawn  in  black  on  white 
paper,  and  black  ink  blots  on  white  paper.  These  were  arranged 
in  different  series.  In  designing  the  material  care  was  taken  to 
avoid  resemblance  to  objects  so  that  the  naming  of  the  figures  by 
the  subject  would  be  excluded.  The  figures  were  mounted  like 
the  pictures.  Plate  I  shows  some  specimen  of  black  figures,  col¬ 
ored  figures,  and  straight  lines,  grouped  in  pairs. 

The  whole  material  comprised  one  series  of  three  hundred 
colored  pictures,  one  of  eight  hundred  half-tone  pictures,  and  one 
series  of  one  hundred  of  each  of  the  four  kinds  of  irregular 
figures. 

In  each  picture  series  the  cards  were  arranged  in  pairs  so  that 
the  two  pictures  in  a  pair  had  a  certain  resemblance  without  be¬ 
ing  alike.  Thus  an  Airdale  and  a  Boston  terrier,  a  fat  butler  and 
a  fat  clergyman,  a  boy  and  a  girl  at  play,  a  knife  and  a  fork,  a 
razor  and  a  safety  razor,  etc.,  formed  pairs  in  the  picture  series. 
The  figures  were  similarly  arranged  so  that  the  general  form 
and  outline  was  common  to  the  members  of  a  pair  and  the  de¬ 
tails  formed  the  differentiating  element. 

8 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


9 


B  -Uui  V-vicC^t 

Inch  Scale  \  I  f  ?  G-gt^n 

P  -  fink  M-Wack 

R 


Plate  I. — Specimen  of  black  figures,  colored  figures,  and  straight  lines, 
forming  part  of  the  material  used  in  experiments  with  “figures.”  Each  sec¬ 
tion  of  the  plate  contains  a  pair  of  “figures.” 


The  cards  were  numbered  on  the  reverse  side,  each  series  sep¬ 
arately,  so  that  an  odd  and  the  subsequent  even  number  marked 
the  two  members  of  a  pair.  The  irregular  figure  series  were 
then  mixed  in  such  a  manner  that  a  new  series  was  formed  in 
which  five  pair  of  black  figures  were  followed  by  five  pair  of 
colored,  these  by  five  pair  of  straight  lines,  these  by  five  pair  of 


10 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANTS 


ink  blots,  and  so  on.  Thus  mixed,  the  cards  were  provided  with 
a  second  serial  number. 

There  were  now  three  main  series  of  cards,  the  half-tone  pic¬ 
tures  numbered  from  i  to  800,  the  mixed  irregular  figures  num¬ 
bered  from  1001  to  1400,  and  the  colored  pictures  numbered 
from  2001  to  2300.  Each  of  these  series  was  divided  in  two 
piles,  one  containing  the  odd,  the  other  the  even  numbered  cards. 

The  material  was  designed  primarily  for  visual  stimulation. 
In  experiments  made  for  the  purpose  of  comparison  between  dif¬ 
ferent  materials  Kirkpatrick1  and  Calkins2  established  the  superi¬ 
ority  of  visual  over  auditory  stimuli,  and  of  pictured  objects  over 
words  in  tests  of  recall  memory.  In  our  material  the  pictures 
would  therefore  be  expected  to  offer  great  facility  for  recollec¬ 
tion.  When  the  subject  names  them  at  presentation  they  occa¬ 
sion,  besid  s  the  visual,  also  auditory  and  kinaesthetic  stimula¬ 
tion.  They  are  rich  in  associations  and  may  be  remembered 
mediately  in  terms  of  language. 

The  irregular  figures,  on  the  other  hand,  offer  material  which 
at  least  largely  eliminates  other  than  visual  memory.  The  char¬ 
acter  of  this  material  excludes  its  use  in  recall  tests.  In  tests  of 
five  cards  the  series  presented  is  uniform,  that  is,  it  is  limited  to 
one  of  the  four  sub-groups,  and  the  subject  has  to  select  from 
among  ten  cards.  Hence,  the  memory  tested  is  that  of  the  de¬ 
tails  which  differentiate  five  individual  figures  of  one  of  the  four 
kinds  from  five  other  figures  of  the  same  kind.  This  differentia¬ 
tion  is  of  visual  quality  and  cannot  easily  be  expressed  in  terms 
of  language.  The  test  is  therefore,  at  least  in  a  high  degree,  one 
of  visual  and  immediate  memory. 

2.  Apparatus 

In  the  main  experiments  the  following  apparatus  was  used : 

a.  An  ordinary  fall  apparatus  for  exposing  the  cards  for  de¬ 
sired  intervals  of  time  of  the  character  of  an  Atwood  machine. 
The  slide  was  counterbalanced  with  lead  weights  and  had  an 
adjustable  opening.  By  adjusting  this  opening  and  interchang- 

1  Psychol.  Rev.,  Vol.  I,  p.  602. 

2  Psychol.  Rev.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  451-62. 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


n 


in g  three  counterbalancing  weights  the  time  of  exposure  of  a 
card  could  be  set  for  from  i"  to  1/50".  Tuning  fork  records  of 
the  times  of  fall  showed  a  maximum  inaccuracy  of  5  per  cent. 

b.  A  large  pasteboard  tray  divided  by  pasteboard  strips  into 
thirty  equal  squares  large  enough  to  hold  one  card  each.  The 
squares  were  numbered  from  one  to  thirty,  the  numbers  being 
irregularly  distributed.  There  was  an  additional  tray  for  twenty 
cards  to  be  used  in  experiments  requiring  presentation  of  more 
than  thirty  cards. 

c.  A  black  satin  curtain  suspended  from  the  horizontal  arm  of 
a  rod  the  vertical  arm  of  which  was  fastened  to  the  laboratory 
table.  The  arms  of  the  rod  were  about  four  feet  long.  The 
curtain  when  drawn  out  would  hide  from  the  subject  the  tray, 
the  piles  of  cards,  and  the  hand  of  the  experimenter  manipulat¬ 
ing  the  cards ;  when  drawn  aside  it  would  expose  the  cards  on  the 
tray  to  the  subject’s  view. 

d.  An  ordinary  watch  was  used  for  recording  time  other  than 
time  of  exposure. 


3.  Procedure 
A.  General 

The  general  procedure  of  the  experiment  was  as  follows.  The 
subject  was  seated  facing  the  laboratory  table  with  the  fall  ap¬ 
paratus  exposed  and  the  curtain  hiding  the  tray.  .The  experi¬ 
menter  stood  on  the  left  side  of  and  behind  the  fall  apparatus, 
the  cards  to  be  used  were  placed  out  of  sight  of  the  subject.  Im¬ 
mediately  before  each  experiment  its  nature  was  carefully  ex¬ 
plained  to  the  subject. 

The  “method  of  selection”  was  used  in  recognition  tests.  It 
has  been  stated  that  the  cards  were  arranged  in  pairs  and  num¬ 
bered  with  an  odd  and  the  subsequent  even  number  in  each  pair. 
If  five  odd  numbered  cards  were  to  be  used  in  a  test  the  corre¬ 
sponding  even  numbered  cards  would  first  be  placed  in  their 
proper  position  on  the  tray.  The  spatial  relations  of  the  ex¬ 
posed  and  non-exposed  cards  were  changed  from  test  to  test. 
The  apparatus  having  been  adjusted  for  the  desired  time  of  ex- 


12 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANTS 


posure  the  experimenter  would  then  expose  one  by  one  the 
odd  numbered  cards  in  the  apparatus  and  after  each  exposure 
put  them  in  place  on  the  tray.  The  exposure  of  the  series  com¬ 
pleted,  there  were  ten  cards  on  the  tray,  five  of  which  had  been 
seen,  and  the  other  five  not  seen  by  the  subject.  The  curtain  was 
then  drawn  aside  either  immediately  or  after  a  desired  interval 
of  time,  and  the  subject  was  told  to  pick  out  the  cards  he  had 
seen. 

In  recall  tests  the  same  procedure  was  followed,  but  before  the 
curtain  was  drawn  aside  for  selection  the  subject  was  told  to  re¬ 
port  orally  the  cards  he  had  seen.  The  recall  tests  were  thus 
combined  with  recognition  tests. 

B.  The  Experiments 

Two  general  methods  of  testing  were  used  as  indicated  above, 
that  of  recognition  by  selection  and  that  of  reproduction  by  re¬ 
call.  The  recognition  method  was  used  with  all  the  material,  in 
addition  to  which  the  recall  method  was  used  with  the  colored  and 
the  half-tone  pictures  only. 

There  were  five  variable  factors  in  the  experiments. 

a.  Material.  The  role  of  this  factor  was  to  differentiate  visual- 
auditory-kinaesthetic-mediate  from  visual-immediate  memory. 
Experiments  with  half-tone  pictures  in  which  time  of  exposure, 
number  of  cards  to  the  test,  and  interval  between  exposure  and 
selection  were  variable  were  repeated  with  figures  in  order  to 
show  any  difference  in  memory  for  different  materials  under 
various  conditions.  The  colored  pictures  were  used  in  two  simi¬ 
lar  experiments,  one  of  which  served  partly  as  an  introductory 
experiment  for  the  purpose  of  absorbing  the  primary,  passing  in¬ 
efficiency  of  the  subjects.  The  other  experiment  was  placed  num¬ 
ber  six  in  the  series  for  the  purpose  of  establishing,  by  way  of 
comparison  with  the  first,  a  possible  change  in  the  subject’s  effi¬ 
ciency  during  prolonged  experimentation. 

b.  Interval  between  exposure  and  selection.  This  factor  was 
introduced  to  give  separate  expression  of  apprehension  and  of 
retention.  The  first  six  experiments  were  divided  into  sets  con¬ 
taining  three  to  six  tests  each.  Some  of  these  sets  were  for  im- 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


13 


mediate  recall  followed  by  delayed  recognition.  In  four  experi¬ 
ments  the  remaining  sets  were  arranged  in  pairs  of  tests  for  im¬ 
mediate  recognition  and  of  tests  for  recognition  after  an  inter¬ 
val  of  three  minutes  counted  from  the  completed  exposure  of  the 
last  card.  In  tests  with  normal  subjects  the  interval  was  in¬ 
creased  to  five  minutes.  In  each  of  these  experiments  there  is 
one  and  the  same  variable  factor  within  all  the  sets  of  tests,  viz. 
time  of  exposure  in  Exp.  II  and  III,  and  number  of  cards  in 
Exp.  IV  and  V,  and  another  variable  factor  between  the  sets, 
viz.  time  elapsing  between  exposure  and  selection. 

c.  Number  of  Cards.  The  preliminary  experiments  indicated 
that  some  subjects  could  remember  about  five  and  others  about 
ten  cards  with  a  reasonable  proportion  of  error.  We  have  there¬ 
fore  accepted  five  and  ten  cards  as  the  “normal”  sets  of  cards  for 
the  two  groups  of  subjects  respectively.  The  “normal”  set  was 
used  in  all  experiments  with  pictures  and  .with  figures  in  which 
the  number  of  cards  to  the  test  was  constant.  In  other  experi¬ 
ments  in  which  the  time  was  constant  the  number  of  cards  forms 
the  variable  factor.  There  were  four  variations,  the  sets  com¬ 
prising  5,  10,  15,  and  20  cards  respectively  for  the  group  using 
the  “normal”  10-card  set  and  3,  5,  7,  and  9  cards  respectively  for 
the  group  using  the  “normal”  5-card  set.  In  experiments  with 
normal  subjects  the  “normal”  set  comprised  15  cards,  and  the 
variables  were  5,  10,  15,  20,  and  25. 

d.  Time  of  Exposure.  The  preliminary  experiments  showed 
one  second  to  be  amply  sufficient  time  of  exposure.  As  a  fact, 
it  was  later  found  that  with  some  subjects  almost  identical  results 
were  obtained  with  exposure  of  1/5".  Exposure  for  one  second 
was  used  in  the  experiments  with  colored  pictures.  In  the  ex¬ 
periments  with  half-tone  pictures  and  with  figures  in  which  time 
of  exposure  formed  the  constant  factor  it  was  reduced  to  1/5". 
In  the  experiments  with  half-tone  pictures  and  with  figures  in 
which  time  of  exposure  was  a  variable  factor  five  variations  were 
made,  viz.  1",  1/5",  1/10",  1/25",  and  1/50".  These  variations 
were  designed  to  modify  the  intensity  of  stimulation. 

e.  Frequency.  Only  a  few  experiments  were  performed  with 


14 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANTS 


half-tone  pictures  for  recall  memory  in  which  each  series  of  cards 
was  exposed  four  times. 

C.  Experimental  Procedure 

To  provide  for  variation  in  the  different  factors  the  experi¬ 
ments  were  arranged  in  eight  groups  to  be  known  hereafter  as 
Experiments  I  to  VIII.  They  succeeded  one  another  in  numeri¬ 
cal  ord^r. 

Experiments  I  and  VI  were  alike  in  character.  One  experi¬ 
ment  day  was  given  to  each.  The  material  was  colored  pictures ; 
time  of  exposure  was  i".  The  “normal”  set  of  5  cards  was  used 
for  two  subjects,  McG  and  E-n,  that  of  10  cards  for  two  other 
subjects,  H-n  and  D-n.  With  each  subject  of  the  first  group 
each  experiment  comprised  5  tests  for  immediate  recognition,  and 
5  for  recall  and  delayed  recognition  combined.  With  each  sub¬ 
ject  of  the  second  group  Exp.  I  comprised  2  tests  for  immediate 
recognition  and  an  equal  number  for  recall  and  delayed  recog¬ 
nition  combined,  and  Exp.  VI.  5  tests  each  for  immediate  recog¬ 
nition  and  for  recall  and  delayed  recognition  combined.  This 
gave  a  total  of  34  tests  for  immediate  recognition  and  an  equal 
number  for  recall  and  delayed  recognition,  or  a  grand  total  of 
68  tests. 

Experiment  II  was  performed  with  half-tone  pictures.  The 
“normaE  set  of  5  cards  was  used  with  two  subjects,  McG  and 
E-n,  and  that  of  10  cards  with  two  other  subjects,  H-n  and  D-n. 
Variable  factor:  time  of  exposure.  With  McG  the  experiment 
covered  eight,  with  each  of  the  remaining  subjects  five  experi¬ 
ment  days.  The  experiment  comprised  40  tests  per  subject  in 
the  first  group,  distributed  with  15  tests  each  for  immediate  and 
delayed  recognition  and  10  tests  for  recall  and  delayed  recogni¬ 
tion  combined.  McG  had  1  additional  test  each  for  immediate 
recognition  and  for  recall  and  delayed  recognition  combined.  In 
the  second  group  H-n  had  12  tests  for  immediate,  and  an  equal 
number  for  delayed  recognition,  and  5  for  recall  and  delayed 
recognition  combined.  D-n  had  8  tests  for  immediate  and  9  for 
delayed  recognition,  and  4  for  recall  and  delayed  recognition 
combined.  This  made  a  total  of  51  tests  for  immediate  and  for 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


15 


delayed  recognition  each,  and  30  for  recall  and  delayed  recogni¬ 
tion  combined,  or  a  grand  total  of  132  tests.  The  distribution  of 
these  tests  over  the  varying  factor  may  be  seen  in  Tables  V,  VII, 
IX,  and  XI  in  which,  however,  among  the  tests  for  exposure  of 
1/5"  are  counted  also  those  for  the  “normal"  set  of  Exp.  IV. 
E-n  could  not  be  tested  for  exposures  of  shorter  duration  than 
1/10". 

Experiment  III  was  performed  with  figures.  It  was  otherwise 
essentially  a  reproduction  of  Exp.  II,  with  the  exception  that 
recall  tests  were  lacking.  With  McG  it  was  distributed  over  four, 
with  the  remaining  subjects,  over  five  experiment  days.  McG 
and  E-n  had  each  20  tests  for  immediate  and  20  for  delayed  rec¬ 
ognition.  H-n  had  10  tests  for  immediate  and  12  for  delayed 
recognition.  D-n  had  10  tests  each  for  immediate  and  for  de¬ 
layed  recognition.  The  total  was  60  tests  for  immediate  and  62 
for  delayed  recognition,  or  a  grand  total  of  122  tests.  The  dis¬ 
tribution  of  these  tests  over  the  varying  factor  may  be  seen  in 
Tables  VI,  VIII,  X,  and  XII,  in  which  the  tests  for  “normal”  set 
of  Exp.  V  are  counted  among  those  for  exposure  of  1/5".  E-n 
could  not  be  tested  for  exposures  of  shorter  duration  than  1/25". 

Experiment  IV  was  performed  with  half-tone  pictures.  The 
time  of  exposure  was  1/5".  Variable  factor:  number  of  cards  to 
the  test.  McG  and  E-n  were  tested  with  3,  5,  7,  and  9  cards; 
H-n  and  D-n  with  5,  10,  15,  and  20  cards.  The  experiment  was 
divided  over  five  experiment  days  with  McG  and  D-n,  and  over 
four  with  E-n  and  H-n.  With  each  subject  of  the  first  group 
(McG  and  E-n)  it  comprised  12  tests  for  immediate  recognition, 
12  for  delayed  recognition,  and  9  for  recall  and  delayed  recogni¬ 
tion  combined.  With  H-n  it  included  5  tests  for  immediate  and 
delayed  recognition  each,  and  7  for  recall  and  delayed  recogni¬ 
tion  combined,  and  with  D-n  7  tests  for  immediate  and  delayed 
recognition  each,  and  8  for  recall  and  delayed  recognition  com¬ 
bined.  This  makes  36  tests  for  immediate  and  delayed  recogni¬ 
tion  each  and  33  tests  for  recall  and  delayed  recognition  com¬ 
bined,  or  a  grand  total  of  105  tests.  The  distribution  of  these 
tests  over  the  varying  factor  may  be  seen  in  Tables  XIII,  XV, 
XVII,  and  XIX. 


i6 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANTS 


Experiment  V  was  performed  with  figures.  It  was  otherwise 
essentially  a  repetition  of  Exp.  IV  with  the  exception  of  lacking 
recall  tests.  With  D-n  it  was  distributed  over  three,  with  McG, 
E-n,  and  H-n  over  four  experiment  days.  McG  and  E-n  each 
had  1 6  tests  for  immediate  and  an  equal  number  for  delayed 
recognition.  H-n  and  D-n  each  had  io  tests  for  immediate  and 
an  equal  number  for  delayed  recognition.  The  total  was  52  tests 
for  immediate  and  delayed  recognition  each,  or  a  grand  total  of 
104  tests.  The  distribution  of  these  tests  over  the  varying  factor 
may  be  seen  in  Tables  XIV,  XVI,  XVIII,  and  XX. 

Experiment  VII  was  performed  with  half-tone  pictures.  The 
“normal'”  set  of  10  cards  was  used  with  two  subjects,  H-n  and 
D-n.  It  covered  five  experiment  days  with  each  subject.  Each 
day  4  tests  were  made  with  each  subject  in  the  following  manner. 
7  cards  of  the  set  were  exposed  in  succession  for  1/5"  each,  and 
after  a  lapse  of  2'  the  subject  was  told  to  recall  the  pictures  seen. 
Three  minutes  were  allowed  for  the  recall,  after  which  time  the 
same  7  and  one  additional  card  were  exposed  and  the  procedure 
after  exposure  repeated.  Thus  for  each  test  one  card  was  added 
so  that  in  the  fourth  test  10  cards  were  exposed.  20  tests  were 
made  with  each  subject,  making  a  total  of  40  tests. 

Experiment  VIII  was  arranged  in  the  same  manner  with  the 
exception  that  30"  after  each  exposure  of  a  set  an  equal  set  of 
colored  pictures  was  exposed,  each  for  1/5".  Thus  each  series 
of  half-tone  pictures  was  followed  by  an  equal  series  of  colored 
pictures.  2 '  after  exposure  of  the  half-tone  picture  series  the 
subject  was  made  to  recall  the  pictures  in  that  series.  The  ex¬ 
periment  covered  five  experiment  days  with  each  subject.  Each 
subject  had  20  tests,  making  a  total  of  40  tests. 

In  all  the  experiments  each  subject  was  tested  for  a  maximum 
of  one  hour  on  each  experiment  day.  A  card  was  used  only 
once  with  each  subject,  but  the  two  series  of  odd  and  even  num¬ 
bered  cards  were  used  alternately,  always,  however  with  an 
interval  of  at  least  two  weeks. 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


1 7 


4.  Method  of  Scoring 


Woodworth’s  method  of  scoring  in  recognition  consists  in  sub¬ 
tracting  from  total  presentations  omissions  and  twice  the  errors. 
The  last  item  eliminates  the  factor  of  guessing  on  the  supposition 
that  in  a  sufficiently  large  series  the  number  of  guesses  is  equally 
distributed  over  right  and  wrong  selections.  For  every  wrong 
selection  there  would  therefore  be  a  right  guess,  and  the  total 
number  of  guesses  is  twice  the  errors. 

It  is  desirable  also  to  provide  for  the  factor  of  hesitation  in  se¬ 
lection  for  which  reason  we  arbitrarily  give  selection  after  hesi¬ 
tation  half  the  value  of  selection  without  hesitation.  To  com¬ 
pare  the  scores  for  groups  using  normal  sets  of  different  size  and 
for  tests  in  which  the  number  of  cards  is  varied  we  express  the 
score  in  per  cent  value.  We  arrive  at  the  following  formula  for 
recognition  score,  used  in  the  present  investigation.3 

(T-N-2W- hw  —  FT  x  100 

2 

- , - =  Score  per  cent. 

T 


In  the  recall  score  the  factors  of  guessing  and  of  hesitation 
obviously  need  not  be  considered,  and  the  formula  will  be: 


100  R 
T 


=  Score  per  cent. 


3  For  meaning  of  letters  in  formula  see  p.  4,  n.  1. 


III.  EXPERIMENTS  WITH  NORMAL  SUBJECTS 

For  the  purpose  of  comparing  the  memory  of  defective  with 
that  of  normal  individuals  a  series  of  experiments  were  made 
with  subjects  of  the  latter  group.  Ten  subjects  were  chosen  and 
^divided  into  two  equal  groups  to  be  known  as  A  and  B  respec¬ 
tively.  Group  A  consisted  of  one  executive  secretary  (F-n),  one 
teacher  (C-n)  and  one  student  (L-d)  at  a  Social  Service  School, 
one  executive  Social  Service  Worker  (C-l),  all  female,  and  one 
colored  maid  (G-n).  Group  B  consisted  of  two  teachers  (E-g 
and  C-h)  and  one  student  (M-n)  of  the  aforesaid  Social  Service 
School,  one  Government  clerk  (M-r)  all  female,  and  one  male 
college  graduate  (R-s).  The  age  of  these  subjects  varied  from 
twenty  to  thirty-five  years. 

The  method  described  in  the  foregoing  section  was  applied 
with  certain  modifications.  Only  Exp.  II  to  V  were  made.  The 
“normal”  set  of  cards  was  extended  to  15  items,  retention  time 
in  tests  for  delayed  recognition  was  increased  to  5  minutes,  and 
in  Exp.  IV  and  V  tests  with  25  cards  to  the  set  were  added.  Ex¬ 
periments  II  and  III  were  made  only  with  the  subjects  of  group 
A,  Experiments  IV  and  V  only  with  those  of  group  B.  The  ex¬ 
periments  with  pictures  (II  and  IV)  were  distributed  over  three, 
those  with  figures  (III  and  V)  over  two  experiment  days  with 
each  subject. 

The  number  and  distribution  of  tests  in  each  experiment  and 
the  results  are  shown  in  Tables  I-IV.  The  results  are  also  repre¬ 
sented  in  Figures  1  and  2. 


18 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


19 


Fig.  1. — Variation  in  Time  of  Exposure.  Per  cent  scores. 

Fig.  2. — Variation  in  Number  of  Cards.  Per  cent  scores.  Both  figures 
show  the  average  results  for  normal  subjects. 


20 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANTS 


Table  I 

Experiments  with  Normal  Subjects. 

Selection  from  Half-tone  Pictures.  Variation  in  Time  of  Exposure. 

15  cards  shown  in  succession..  Immediate  recognition  and  recall.  In  delayed 
recognition  retention  time  5  minutes.  24  experiments  with  each  subject 
equally  distributed  over  tests  for  immediate  recognition,  recall  and  delayed 
recognition.  Figures  give  per  cent  score. 


Time 

of  Exposure 

a.  Immediate  Recognition 

1" 

i/5" 

1/10" 

1/25" 

i/50 

Number  of  tests 

1 

2 

2 

1 

2 

Subjects 

F-n  . 

100 

97 

67 

67 

L-d  . 

..  93 

93 

93 

60 

53 

C-n  . 

100 

97 

53 

33 

C-l  . . . 

..  87 

87 

60 

47 

60 

G-n  . 

97 

100 

87 

33 

Average  . 

..  96 

95 

89 

63 

49 

b.  Recall 

Number  of  tests 

I 

2 

2 

1 

2 

Subjects 

F-n  . 

..  93 

87 

87 

80 

73 

L-d  . 

..  87 

80 

67 

60 

53 

C-n  . 

..  80 

73 

67 

67 

40 

C-l  . 

80 

73 

67 

53 

G-n  . 

..  87 

87 

87 

77 

67 

Average  . 

..  85 

81 

76 

70 

57 

c.  Delayed  Recognition 

Number  of  tests 

I 

2 

2 

1 

2 

Subjects 

F-n  . 

••  95 

100 

87 

67 

47 

L-d  . . 

••  93 

87 

93 

60 

40 

C-n  . 

93 

90 

40 

27 

C-l  . 

..  87 

87 

73 

47 

47 

G-n  . 

100 

87 

93 

40 

Average  . 

••  95 

93 

86 

61 

40 

MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


21 


Table  II 

Experiments  with  Normal  Subjects. 

Selection  from  Figures.  Variation  in  Time  of  Exposure. 

15  cards  shown  in  succession.  Immediate  and  delayed  recognition.  In  de¬ 
layed  recognition  retention  time  5  minutes.  6  experiments  for  immediate 
and  7  for  delayed  recognition  with  each  subject.  Figures  give  per  cent  score. 

Time  of  Exposure 


a.  Immediate  Recognition 

1" 

i/5" 

1/10" 

1/25" 

l/50 

Number  of  tests 

1 

2 

1 

1 

I 

Subjects 

F-n  . 

..  87 

73 

67 

53 

33 

L-d  . 

60 

47 

2  7 

33 

C-n  . 

..  93 

73 

60 

60 

40 

C-l  . 

..  73 

47 

33 

33 

20 

G-n  . 

87 

87 

77 

60 

Average  . 

..  87 

68 

59 

50 

37 

b.  Delayed  Recognition 

Number  of  tests 

I 

2 

I 

I 

2 

Subjects 

F-n  . 

..  80 

53 

47 

27 

20 

L-d  . 

47 

36 

20 

20 

C-n  . 

••  73 

67 

60 

20 

13 

C-l  . 

..  87 

60 

47 

47 

33 

G-n  . 

..  87 

87 

77 

87 

47 

Average  . 

..  77 

62 

53 

40 

27 

22 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANTS 


Table  III 

Experiments  from  Half-tone  Pictures.  Variation  in  Number  of  Cards. 

Cards  shown  in  succession  for  1/5".  Immediate  recognition  and  recall;  in 
delayed  recognition  retention  time  5  minutes.  27  experiments  with  each  sub¬ 
ject  equally  distributed  over  tests  for  immediate  recognition,  recall,  and  de¬ 
layed  recognition.  Figures  give  per  cent  score. 


Number  of  Cards 

a.  Immediate  Recognition 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

Number  of  tests 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

Subjects 

E-g  . 

. .  92 

98 

IOO 

IOO 

IOO 

C-h  . 

..  82 

84 

88 

IOO 

IOO 

M-n  . 

. .  82 

84 

89 

IOO 

IOO 

M-r  . 

,.  84 

90 

93 

IOO 

IOO 

R-s  . 

IOO 

IOO 

IOO 

IOO 

Average  . 

..  87 

91 

94 

IOO 

IOO 

b.  Recall 

Number  of  tests 

2 

2 

2 

2 

I 

Subjects 

E-g  . 

80 

80 

IOO 

IOO 

C-h  . 

60 

87 

95 

IOO 

M-n  . 

..  44 

55 

67 

85 

IOO 

M-r  . 

..  80 

80 

87 

90 

IOO 

R-s  . 

. .  76 

85 

87 

IOO 

IOO 

Average  . 

72 

82 

94 

IOO 

c.  Delayed  Recognition 

Number  of  tests 

2 

2 

2 

2 

I 

Subjects 

E-g  . 

..  76 

80 

IOO 

90 

IOO 

C-h  . 

..  48 

72 

72 

IOO 

IOO 

M-n  . 

72 

89 

IOO 

IOO 

M-r  . 

72 

80 

90 

IOO 

IOO 

R-s  . . 

..  96 

IOO 

IOO 

IOO 

IOO 

Average  . 

..  71 

81 

90 

98 

IOO 

MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


23 


Table  IV 


Experiments  with  Normal  Subjects 
Selection  from  Figures.  Variation  in  Number  of  Cards. 

Cards  shown  for  1/5"  in  succession.  Immediate  and  delayed  recognition. 
In  delayed  recognition  retention  time  5  minutes.  14  experiments  with  each 
subject  equally  distributed  over  tests  for  immediate  and  for  delayed  recog¬ 
nition.  Figures  give  per  cent  score. 


a.  Immediate  Recognition  25 

Number  of  tests  1 

Subjects 

E-g  .  76 

C-h  .  52 

M-n  .  36 

M-r  .  36 

R-s  .  80 


Average  .  56 

b.  Delayed  Recognition 

Number  of  tests  1 

Subj  ects 

E-g  .  68 

C-h  .  52 

M-n  .  28 

M-r  .  36 

R-s  .  76 


52 


Number  of  Cards 


20 

15 

10 

5 

I 

2 

2 

1 

80 

87 

100 

100 

60 

60 

65 

80 

50 

60 

80 

90 

40 

47 

60 

80 

80 

87 

100 

100 

62 

68 

81 

90 

1 

2 

2 

1 

70 

87 

90 

100 

50 

60 

60 

70 

40 

47 

70 

80 

40 

40 

50 

70 

80 

87 

100 

100 

56 

64 

74 

84 

Average 


IV.  THE  ABNORMAL  SUBJECTS 

Four  subjects,  patients  at  St.  Elizabeth’s  Hospital  in  Wash¬ 
ington,  D.  C.,  with  memory  defects  associated  with  organic  psy¬ 
choses  were  selected  for  special  investigation.  Brief  histories,  so 
far  as  they  are  essential  to  the  present  study,  follow;  many  de¬ 
tails  have  been  omitted. 

McG.  Male.  Age  40  years.  Born  in  U.  S.  Unmarried. 
Former  sailor  in  U.  S.  Navy.  Psychosis  associated  with  cere¬ 
brospinal  syphilis. 

Family  history  negative.  The  subject  went  to  school  up  to 
his  fourteenth  year  when  he  became  a  mechanical  laborer;  later 
he  enlisted  in  the  U.  S.  Navy.  He  used  alcohol  as  a  rule  mod¬ 
erately  but  occasionally  to  excess.  In  1908  he  contracted  syphilis 
and  received  immediate  treatment.  A  year  later  a  stiffness  ap¬ 
peared  in  his  left  arm  and  leg.  He  received  hospital  treatment 
and  was  able  to  return  to  duty  and  after  expiration  of  his  en¬ 
listment  in  1912  to  resume  his  occupation  as  a  laborer.  On  ad¬ 
mission  to  St.  Elizabeth’s  Hospital  in  November  1914  the  sub¬ 
ject  had  no  memory  of  the  events  leading  to  his  being  sent  there 
and  was  unable  generally  to  give  information  about  himself. 
Neurological  examination  showed  poor  grip,  weaker  on  the  left 
than  on  the  right  side.  There  was  apparent  spastic  paralysis  of 
the  muscles  of  the  left  side,  the  left  foot  being  extended  on  the 
leg  and  almost  immovable.  The  muscles  of  the  face  were  greatly 
paralyzed.  The  left  side  showed  a  Babinski  and  ankle  clonus. 
All  deep  reflexes  were  exaggerated;  the  gait  was  unsteady  and 
stiffened  with  dragging  of  the  left  foot.  A  mental  test  in  Feb¬ 
ruary  1915  gave  the  following  results: — Special  memory  test 
deficient.  Simple  calculation  good.  Months  and  days  were  given 
correctly  forward  and  backward,  and  figures  of  four  digits  were 
given  correctly  and  transposed.  General  information  good. 
Memory  of  current  events  deficient.  Since  this  time  the  subject 
has  undergone  a  gradual  deterioration.  The  following  diagnosis 


24 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


25 


was  made.  Cerebrospinal  syphilis.  Lacunar  softenings  with  in- 
volvment  on  both  sides.  The  lesions  are  probably : — Right  side, 
extensive  in  the  internal  capsule;  left  side,  of  very  slight  extent 
in  the  capsule.  There  may  also  be  cortical  lesions;  possibly  also 
some  in  the  posterior  portion  of  the  internal  capsule  or  the  tha¬ 
lamus,  and  in  the  spinal  cord. 

In  the  laboratory  the  subject  showed  lack  of  orientation,  de¬ 
creased  power  of  conception  and  observation,  and  retrograde  and 
anterograde  amnesia.  He  was  willing  to  assist  at  the  experiments 
but  was  noisy  and  talkative  and  failed  to  pay  voluntary  atten¬ 
tion  to  his  tasks.  He  would  constantly  repeat  the  same  stream 
of  talk,  ending  with  a  song.  He  did  not  remember  from  day  to 
day  the  answers  to  the  same  cpiestions  he  asked  almost  daily  for 
months.  Incidents  with  strong  emotional  setting,  however,  were 
remembered  but  always  referred  to  as  of  more  recent  occurrence. 
He  had  no  memory  of  events  following  the  infection  and  con¬ 
fabulated  when  asked  about  that  period. 

E-n.  Male.  Age  64  years.  Born  in  Sweden.  Married. 
Former  sail-maker’s  mate  in  U.  S.  Navy.  Senile  or  pre-senile 
psychosis. 

Family  history  unknown.  The  subject  went  to  school  from 
his  eighth  to  his  nineteenth  year.  At  twenty-two  he  went  to  sea. 
He  states  that  he  was  a  moderate  user  of  alcohol  and  tobacco. 
He  suffered  with  mental  confusion  in  1917  and  was  taken  to  a 
Naval  hospital  where  he  was  found  disoriented,  confused,  and 
lacking  insight.  There  were  traces  of  sugar  in  the  urine.  After 
diet  and  treatment  the  urine  became  sugar  free,  but  the  mental 
condition  persisted.  On  admission  to  St.  Elizabeth’s  Hospital 
in  December  1917  his  physical  condition  was  fair,  but  he  was 
nervous.  He  showed  himself  disoriented  in  all  fields.  His  mem¬ 
ory  was  poor  for  recent  events,  special  memory  was  also  very 
poor.  The  months  and  days  were  given  correctly  forward  and 
backward.  He  could  transpose  three  digits.  He  had  no  knowl¬ 
edge  of  current  events,  and  his  ability  for  calculation  was  poor. 
His  talk  was  generally  relevant  and  coherent,  but  sometimes  he 
became  confused  and  spoke  in  an  irrelevant  and  incoherent  man- 


26 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANTS 


ner.  He  was  quite  disoriented  and  lacked  insight  and  judgment. 
He  gave  his  age  usually  as  104  or  163  years,  once  or  twice  he 
gave  his  real  age.  On  a  hot  July  day  he  would  say  that  it  was 
January  and  that  there  ought  to  be  snow.  Occasionally  he  would 
laugh  to  himself,  on  other  occasions  his  face  would  contract  as 
if  he  were  going  to  cry. 

In  the  laboratory  he  was  very  tractable  and  quiet.  He  was 
willing  to  cooperate  but  often  became  distracted  and  failed  to  at¬ 
tend  to  the  tests  voluntarily.  He  complained  of  poor  eye-sight, 
received  glasses  but  could  not  be  made  to  use  them.  When  the 
cards  were  presented  for  selection  he  would  usually  show  sur¬ 
prise,  deny  having  seen  any,  or  say  that  he  had  seen  all.  When 
told  that  he  had  seen  five  of  the  ten  cards  he  would  look  at  the 
cards,  slowly  take  one  by  one  and,  on  being  questioned,  admit  or 
deny  that  he  had  seen  them.  At  other  times  he  would  make  a 
rapid  selection. 

H-n.  Male.  Age  54  years.  Born  in  U.  S.  Married.  Retired 
Army  Officer.  Psychosis  associated  with  cerebral  arterio-sclero- 
sis. 

Family  history  negative.  The  subject  had  yellow  fever  in  1899 
and  later,  while  in  the  Philippines,  malaria,  dengue,  and  dysen¬ 
tery.  He  was  a  moderate  user  of  alcohol.  While  serving  in  the 
Philippines  in  1904  he  developed  severe  intestinal  trouble  and 
was  subsequently  returned  to  the  U.  S.  On  the  journey  home  he 
was  very  weak,  was  unable  to  stand,  became  cross-eyed,  and  had 
hallucinations  and  delusions.  There  is  complete  amnesia  for  the 
two  years  following  this  period.  He  was  retired  from  service. 
From  this  time  to  1917  his  symptoms  were  confusion  of  ideas, 
poor  memory  and  lack  of  interest  in  current  events.  During  the 
war  he  served  for  a  year  as  Quartermaster  but  was  finally  relieved 
from  duty  because  of  discrepancies  in  his  accounts.  At  that  time 
he  showed  amnesia  particularly  for  recent  events.  He  had  had 
various  neurasthenic  complaints.  On  admission  to  St.  Eliza¬ 
beth’s  Hospital  in  October  1920  the  subject  was  found  physically 
well  developed.  Neurological  examination  showed: — Muscle 
power  equal,  fairly  good  and  fairly  well  sustained.  Reflexes : 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


27 


upper  extremities  equal  and  normal,  corneal  and  pharyngeal  pres¬ 
ent,  abdominal  not  obtained,  patellar  decreased,  no  ankle  jerks. 
Slight  swaying  in  Romberg,  no  Babinski,  lack  of  coordination  of 
fingers  to  nose,  slight  tremors  of  outstretched  fingers.  The  sub¬ 
ject  was  oriented  and  no  hallucinations  or  delusions  were  elicited. 
He  had  a  fair  knowledge  of  current  events.  There  was  a  gross 
memory  defect  with  poor  memory  for  details.  Dates  of  histori¬ 
cal  events  were  given  correctly  but  details  were  lacking.  Names 
of  childhood  associates  and  details  of  events  in  his  own  life  were 
poorly  recalled.  His  conversation  was  slow  though  relevant  and 
coherent.  He  was  diagnosed  first  as  undifferentiated  psychosis 
with  depression,  and  in  December  1920  this  was  corrected  to 
psychosis  associated  with  cerebral  arterio-sclerosis.  In  the  spring 
of  1921  he  was  improved.  Outside  his  memory  defect  there  were 
practically  no  mental  symptoms  at  the  time.  A  hospital  note  of 
September  1921  records  a  further  improvement,  particularly  in 
his  memory  for  past  events. 

In  the  laboratory  his  manner  and  conversation  were  in  every 
respect  normal.  He  cooperated  excellently  in  the  experiments 
and  showed  a  great  desire  to  get  well.  He  was  most  enthusastic 
over  the  tests  which  he  thought  to  be  therapeutic. 

D-n.  Female.  Age  53  years.  Born  in  U.  S.  Widow.  Toxic 
psychosis,  Korsakow  type. 

The  subject  has  a  sister  who  is  an  imbecile.  A  brother  used 
alcohol  to  excess  and  committed  suicide.  The  father  also  used 
alcohol  to  excess,  the  mother  moderately.  She  comes  of  a  so¬ 
cially  prominent  family  and  has  enjoyed  a  refined  education.  In 
her  youth  she  had  a  successful  career  on  the  dramatic  stage.  She 
had  literary  talent.  At  the  time  of  the  death  of  her  husband  in 
1906  she  was  depressed  and  indifferent  to  her  surroundings,  she 
had  previously  been  using  alcohol  to  excess  and  probably  also 
morphine  and  cocaine.  On  admission  to  St.  Elizabeth’s  Hospital 
in  August  1907  she  had  multiple  neuritis,  optic  atrophy,  weak 
heart,  and  a  tendency  to  constipation.  Neurological  examination 
showed: — Tingling  sensation  in  the  fingers  of  both  hands.  Grip 
in  both  hands  very  weak.  Plantar  reflexes  diminished,  especially 
on  left  side,  patellar  and  Achilles  reflexes  absent,  no  ankle  clonus. 


28 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANTS 


Sensation  for  light  touch  diminished,  and  to  heat  and  cold  normal 
in  both  arms  and  legs.  Sensation  over  trunk,  taste,  smell  and 
hearing  normal.  Pain  on  pressure  over  popliteal  nerve  on  the 
left  leg — none  on  the  right.  There  were  no  areas  of  anaesthesia, 
no  girdle  pains,  no  gastric  crises.  She  was  unable  to  stand  un¬ 
aided,  and,  when  assisted  in  standing,  her  feet  and  legs  became 
cyanosed.  The  mental  symptoms  were : — Clouding  of  conscious¬ 
ness,  fatigue  on  slight  mental  exertion,  and  slight  apprehensive¬ 
ness.  She  had  some  insight  into  her  own  condition.  The  intelli¬ 
gence  test  was  good,  the  attention  test  fair.  Delusions  and  hal¬ 
lucinations  were  recorded  previous  to  her  admittance  to  the  hos¬ 
pital.  Memory  for  recent  events  was  poor  and  associative  mem¬ 
ory  defective.  There  was  marked  falsification  of  memory,  dis¬ 
orientation  for  time  and  place,  and  a  tendency  to  confabulation 
and  to  indulgence  in  pseudo-reminiscences.  In  January  1909  she 
was  greatly  improved.  Her  physical  health  was  good,  she  was 
oriented  as  to  time,  place  and  person,  showed  good  judgment  and 
reasoning,  and  appeared  mentally  normal  but  for  slight  memory 
defect.  Her  memory  seemed  normal  for  events  up  to  the  out¬ 
break  of  the  psychosis,  following  which  there  is  a  period  of  com¬ 
plete  amnesia.  A  memory  test  in  1914  showed: — Associative 
memory  good,  general  information  good,  memory  for  current 
events  faulty.  In  June  1918  she  was  discharged  as  sufficiently 
improved  to  take  up  outside  work,  but  returned  in  1920  with  a 
recurrance  of  her  psychosis.  At  the  time  of  the  present  investi¬ 
gation  the  subject  enjoyed  good  physical  health.  She  was  en¬ 
gaged  in  simple  clerical  work  for  the  hospital.  She  appeared 
mentally  normal  but  for  a  slight  impairment  in  judgment,  a  cer¬ 
tain  emotional  instability,  and  a  defect  in  memory  for  recent 
events.  She  cooperated  well  in  the  experiments  and  was  anxious 
to  make  a  recovery. 


V.  INDIVIDUAL  RESULTS 
i.  Variation  in  Time  of  Exposure 
Subject:  McG 

Experiments  with  Pictures.  Experiment  II  gave  the  following 
results  (Table  V).  In  immediate  recognition  the  score  is  73  per 
cent  for  exposure  of  1"  and  declines  rapidly  for  shorter  expos¬ 
ures,  being  54,  53,  20  and  6  per  cent  respectively  for  exposures 
of  1/5",  1/10",  1/25",  and  1/50".  There  is  no  appreciable  dif¬ 
ference  between  the  results  for  exposures  of  1/5"  and  1/10",  but 
the  difference  between  these  figures  and  the  73  per  cent  obtained 
for  exposure  of  1",  together  with  the  total  difference  of  67  per 
cent  between  the  results  for  1"  and  1/50"  exposures  show  that 
short  exposures  prevented  clear  apprehension.  This  is  further 
borne  out  by  the  complaint  of  the  subject  that  the  experimenter 
was  “going  too  fast,”  particularly  with  exposures  of  1/25"  and 
1/50". 

A  similar  rapid  decline  is  found  in  the  results  for  delayed 
recognition.  The  scores  are  60,  33,  33,  20,  and  7  per  cent  for 
exposures  from  1"  to  1/50"  respectively.  Comparing  these  re¬ 
sults  with  those  for  immediate  recognition  we  find  that  for  ex¬ 
posures  of  1",  1/5",  and  1/10"  there  is  a  considerable  difference 
in  score,  which  difference  is  wholly  or  practically  absent  in  the 
results  for  exposures  of  1/25"  and  1/50".  The  differences  for 
the  three  longer  exposures,  counting  from  that  of  1",  are  13, 
21,  and  20  per  cent  respectively.  These  differences  we  would 
associate  with  the  lapse  of  time  between  exposure  and  selection. 
It  would  then  seem  that  the  low  results  obtained  with  the  two 
shortest  exposures  in  delayed  recognition  are  due  not  to  the  trans¬ 
formation  of  the  mental  impression  in  the  interval  of  3  minutes, 
but  to  poor  apprehension. 

The  results  for  delayed  recognition  after  recall  are,  as  a  whole, 
lower  than  those  for  delayed  recognition  without  recall.  The 

scores  are  47,  44,  10,  20,  and  -20  per  cent  for  the  respective  ex- 

29 


30 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANTS 


Table  V 

Summary  of  Experiments  with  Pictures  and  Variation  in  Time  of  Exposure. 

Subject:  McG. 

I.  Immediate  Recognition 


No.  of 

Time  of 

R 

Hes. 

w 

N 

T 

Score 

No.  of 

Exp’t 

Exposure 

R 

W 

per  cent 

Tests 

II. 

I" 

12 

— 

— 

3 

— 

15 

73 

3 

II.  and  IV. 

i/5" 

27 

— 

— 

8 

— 

35 

54 

7 

II. 

1/10" 

23 

— 

— 

7 

— 

30 

53 

6 

II. 

1/25" 

6 

— 

— 

4 

— 

10 

20 

2 

II. 

i/5o" 

8 

— 

— 

7 

— 

15 

6 

3  21 

2. 

Recall  and  Delayed  Recognition 

No.  of 

Time  of 

Recall 

Delayed  Recognition 

Exp’t 

Expos. 

R 

Hes.  W  N 

T 

Score 

R 

Hes. 

w 

N 

T 

Score 

No.  of 

R 

W 

per  cent 

R 

w 

per  cent 

Tests 

II. 

i" 

6 

— 

-  -  9 

15 

40 

II 

— 

— 

4 

— 

15 

47 

3 

II.  &  IV.  1/5" 

10 

— 

-  -  15  25 

40 

18 

— 

— 

7 

— 

25 

44 

5 

II. 

I  /  IO" 

5 

— 

-  -  15  20 

25 

II 

— 

— 

9 

— 

20 

10 

4 

II. 

1/25" 

— 

— 

-  -  5 

5 

O 

3 

— 

— 

2 

— 

5 

20 

1 

II. 

1/50" 

1 

— 

-  -  9 

10 

10 

4 

— 

— 

6 

10 

-20 

2  15 

3.  Delayed  Recognition 

No.  of 

Time  of 

R 

Hes. 

w 

N 

T 

Score 

No.  of 

Exp’t 

Exposure 

R 

w 

per  cent 

Tests 

II. 

i" 

12 

— 

— 

3 

— 

15 

60 

3 

II.  and 

IV. 

i/5" 

19 

— 

2 

9 

— 

30 

33 

6 

II. 

1/10" 

20 

— 

— 

10 

— 

30 

33 

6 

II. 

1/25" 

6 

— 

— 

4 

— 

IO 

20 

2 

II. 

1/50" 

8 

— 

— 

7 

— 

15 

7 

3  20 

Total  tests  56 


posures.  The  effort  to  recall  would  therefore  seem  to  be  an  in¬ 
terference  with  the  recognition  memory.  In  this  connection  it 
should  be  noted  that  the  subject  hardly  ever  could  be  made  to  re¬ 
main  quiet  in  the  retention  interval  in  experiments  for  delayed 
recognition  without  recall.  He  would  attempt  to  talk  about  him¬ 
self,  to  ask  questions  about  the  experimenter  and  the  hospital 
physicians,  or  to  sing:  hence  it  is  fair  to  assume  that  his  mind 
would  be  occupied  but  not  with  the  experiment.  It  is  therefore 
not  the  mental  occupation,  but  the  particular  effort  to  recall  that 
differentiates  the  experiments  for  delayed  recognition  with  and 
without  recall.  The  difference  in  results  must  then  be  ascribed 
to  the  latter  factor. 

The  results  for  recall  are,  on  the  whole,  lower  than  those  for 
recognition.  For  the  respective  exposures  the  scores  are  40,  40, 
25,  o,  and  10  per  cent.  The  recall  memory  is,  therefore,  less  good 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


3i 


than  the  recognition  memory.  There  are  two  considerable  drops 
in  the  scores,  one  occurring  with  1/10"  and  the  other  with  1/25" 
exposure.  These  drops  must  be  ascribed  to  reduced  apprehension 
as  a  result  of  decreased  stimulation  time. 

Experiments  with  Figwres.  Experiment  III  gave  the  follow¬ 
ing  results  (Table  VI).  In  immediate  recognition  the  scores  are 
50,  27,  15,  10,  and  8  per  cent  for  the  respective  exposures  from 
1"  to  1/50".  In  general  these  scores  are  lower  than  the  corre¬ 
sponding  scores  for  pictures,  the  differences  for  the  various  ex¬ 
posures  being  respectively  23,  27,  38,  10,  and  -2  per  cent.  With 
decreasing  stimulation  time  these  scores  drop  more  rapidly  than 
those  for  pictures  up  to  and  including  exposure  for  1/10",  from 
then  on  the  two  series  of  scores  converge,  becoming  practically 
identical  for  1/50"  exposure. 

Table  VI 

Summary  of  Experiments  with  Figures  and  Variation  in  Time  of  Exposure 

Subject:  McG. 

1.  Immediate  Recognition 


No.  of 

Time  of 

R 

Hes. 

w 

N 

T 

Score 

No.  of 

Exp’t. 

III. 

Exposure 

1" 

15 

R 

W 

5 

20 

per  cent 
50 

Tests 

4 

V. 

i/5" 

19 

— 

— 

11 

— 

30 

27 

6 

III. 

1/10" 

23 

— 

— 

1 7 

— 

40 

15 

8 

III. 

1/25" 

11 

— 

— 

9 

— 

20 

10 

4 

III. 

1/50" 

10 

1 

— 

9 

— 

20 

8 

4  26 

III. 

1" 

2.  Delayed  Recognition 

14  -  -  6 

20 

40 

4 

V. 

i/5" 

1 7 

— 

— 

13 

— 

30 

13 

6 

III. 

1/10" 

22 

— 

— 

18 

— 

40 

10 

8 

III. 

1/25" 

11 

— 

— 

9 

— 

20 

10 

4 

III. 

1/50" 

8 

— 

— 

12 

— 

20 

-20 

4  26 

Total  tests  52 


With  this  material,  therefore,  apprehension  also  deteriorates 
rapidly  with  the  decrease  in  stimulation  time.  In  general,  pic¬ 
tures  offer  greater  facility  for  apprehension,  but  this  advantage 
disappears  when  the  stimulation  time  becomes  sufficiently  de¬ 
creased. 

In  delayed  recognition  the  scores  for  the  respective  exposures 
are  40,  13,  10,  10,  and  -20  per  cent.  The  corresponding  differ¬ 
ences  between  these  scores  and  those  for  immediate  recognition 


32 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANTS 


are  io,  14,  5,  o,  and  28  per  cent.  Comparing  these  with  the  cor¬ 
responding  figures  for  pictures  we  find  the  present  differences 
somewhat  smaller  and  disappearing  sooner  than  was  the  case  with 
pictures.  The  retention  time  factor  shows  a  considerable  influ¬ 
ence  in  reducing  the  scores  for  1"  and  1/10"  exposure;  for 
shorter  exposures  this  influence  decreases  and  the  low  results 
must  be  ascribed  to  poor  apprehension. 

Throughout  the  series  of  experiments  it  was  noticed  that  the 
quality  of  the  picture  or  figure  presented  did,  to  a  certain  extent, 
influence  apprehension  and  memory.  Pictures  with  girls,  sailors, 
and  ships  made  a  stronger  impression  on  account  of  their  emo¬ 
tional  connotation,  as  did  also  green  and  blue  figures — the  sub¬ 
ject  was  Irish  and  a  former  sailor.  He  became  more  interested 
when  material  of  this  character  was  presented.  In  tests  for  re¬ 
call  this  factor  was  very  apparent;  in  tests  for  recognition  it 
was  not  noticed  to  have  an  effect,  since  the  subject  was  no  more 
correct  in  his  choice  between  two  items  of  the  pleasing  character. 

Subject:  E-n 

Experiments  with  Pictures.  The  results  obtained  in  Experi¬ 
ment  II  are  shown  in  Table  VII.  In  immediate  recognition  the 

Table  VII 

Summary  of  Experiments  with  Pictures  and  Variation  in  Time  of  Exposure. 

Subject:  E-n. 

1.  Immediate  Recognition 


No.  of 

Time  of 

R  Hes. 

W 

N  T 

Score 

No.  of 

Exp’t 

Exposure 

R  W 

per  cent 

Tests 

II. 

i" 

33  -  - 

1 7 

-  50 

32 

10 

II.  and  IV. 

i/5" 

1 7  1  - 

6 

6  30 

37 

6 

II. 

1/10" 

9  -  - 

2 

9  20 

35 

4  20 

2. 

Recall  and  Delayed  Recognition 

No.  of 

Time  of 

Recall 

Delayed  Recognition 

Exp’t 

Expos. 

R 

Hes.  W  N  T 

Score 

R  Hes. 

w 

N  T 

Score 

No.  of 

R 

W 

per  cent 

R  W 

per  cent 

Tests 

II. 

I" 

5 

— 

-  -  20  25 

20 

II  -  - 

5 

9  25 

24 

5 

ir.  &  iv.  1/5" 

4 

— 

-  ~  21  25 

16 

10  -  - 

8 

7  25 

8 

5 

11. 

I/IO" 

3 

— 

-  -  17  20 

15 

2-1 

1 

16  20 

5 

4  14 

3.  Delayed  Recognition 

n. 

1" 

27  2  - 

14 

2  45 

3i 

9 

II.  and 

IV. 

i/5" 

1 7  -  - 

9 

4  30 

27 

6 

II. 

1/10" 

6  -  - 

2  1 7  25 

16 

5  20 

Total  tests  54 

MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


33 


scores  are  32,  37,  and  35  per  cent  for  exposures  of  1",  1/5", 
and  1/10"  respectively.  The  subject  was  quite  unable  to  make 
out  the  pictures  when  exposed  for  1/25" — he  would  look  up 
astonished  and  say  that  he  could  see  nothing.  For  this  reason 
the  tests  for  1/25"  and  1/50"  were  not  continued.  The  scores 
are  low  but  show  little  variation.  They  are  slightly  better  for  ex¬ 
posure  of  1/5",  and  1/10"  than  for  exposure  of  1";  the  best 
result  is  obtained  with  exposure  of  1/5". 

In  delayed  recognition  there  is  more  variation  in  the  scores 
which  are  31,  27,  and  16  per  cent  for  exposures  of  1",  1/5", 
and  1/10"  respectively.  The  scores  decline  at  an  increasing  rate 
with  the  gradual  shortening  of  the  stimulation  time.  This  differ¬ 
ence  between  the  two  series  of  scores  may  find  an  explanation  in 
the  following  facts.  Table  XXVII  shows  that  in  immediate 
recognition  the  last  item  exposed  is  most  frequently  selected,  80 
per  cent;  the  first  and  second,  63  per  cent;  the  third,  60  per  cent; 
and  the  fourth,  53  per  cent.  In  delayed  recognition  the  per¬ 
centage  selections  from  the  five  items  are:  fourth  and  fifth,  53 
per  cent;  third,  50  per  cent;  and  first  and  second,  43  per  cent 
each.  The  greatest  difference  between  the  two  scores,  viz.,  27 
per  cent,  is  found  for  the  fifth  item,  the  next  greatest  for  each 
of  the  first  two  items,  the  difference  for  the  third  item  is  10  per 
cent,  and  for  the  fourth  there  is  no  difference.  The  proportion¬ 
ately  more  frequent  occurrence  in  immediate  than  in  delayed 
recognition  of  the  fifth  item  may  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  in 
immediate  recognition  this  item  is  selected  immediately  after  hav¬ 
ing  been  exposed  whereas  new  stimuli  intervene  between  ex¬ 
posure  and  selection  of  the  remaining  items.  If,  therefore,  we 
consider  only  the  first  four  items,  the  percentages  of  selection  are, 
counting  from  the  first  to  the  fourth  item,  in  immediate  recog¬ 
nition  63,  63,  60,  and  53  per  cent,  and  in  delayed  recognition 
43,  43,  50,  and  53  per  cent.  These  figures  present  themselves  in 
a  descending  scale  for  immediate  and  in  an  ascending  scale  for 
delayed  recognition.  This  would  suggest  at  least  a  more  marked 
influence  of  retroactive  inhibition  in  delayed  than  in  immediate 
recognition,  which  factor  in  conjunction  with  the  influence  of  re- 


34 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANTS 


duction  in  stimulation  time  may  explain  the  peculiar  difference 
in  the  two  scores. 

The  results  for  delayed  recognition  after  recall  are  lower  than 
those  for  delayed  recognition  without  recall,  the  scores  being 
24,  8,  and  5  per  cent  for  exposures  of  i",  1/5",  and  1/10"  re¬ 
spectively.  The  subject  usually  remained  quiet  in  the  interval 
between  exposure  and  selection  in  experiments  for  delayed  recog¬ 
nition  without  recall.  We  may  ascribe  the  lower  results  and  the 
more  rapid  decline  in  the  score  to  a  deleterious  influence  of  the 
effort  to  recall  upon  recognition  memory. 

The  recall  score  is  lower  than  that  for  immediate  as  well  as 
that  for  delayed  recognition;  it  decreases  with  the  shortening  of 
the  stimulation  time.  The  figures  are  20,  16,  and  15  per  cent 
for  exposures  of  1",  1/5"  and  1/10"  respectively. 

Experiments  with  Figures.  Table  VIII  gives  the  results  of 

Table  VIII 

Summary  of  Experiments  with  Figures  and  Variation  in  Time  of  Exposure. 

Subject:  E-n. 

1.  Immediate  Recognition 


No.  of 

Time  of 

R 

Hes. 

W 

N 

T 

Score 

No.  of 

Exp’t. 

III. 

Exposure 

1" 

22 

R 

1 

W 

7 

30 

per  cent 
52 

Tests 

6 

V. 

i/5" 

23 

— 

— 

7 

— 

30 

53 

6 

III. 

1/10" 

27 

— 

— 

13 

— 

40 

35 

8 

III. 

1/25" 

i5 

— 

— 

8 

7 

30 

23 

6  26 

II'I. 

1" 

2.  Delayed  Recognition 

19  -  10 

1 

30 

30 

6 

V. 

i/5" 

19 

1 

— 

10 

— 

30 

32 

6 

III. 

1/10" 

21 

— 

4 

15 

— 

40 

15 

8 

III. 

1/25" 

15 

— 

— 

13 

2 

30 

7 

6  26 

Total  tests  52 


Experiment  III.  In  immediate  recognition  the  scores  are  52,  53, 
35,  and  23  per  cent  for  exposures  from  1"  to  1/25"  respectively. 
It  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  subject  was  able  to  discern  the  figures 
when  the  time  of  exposure  was  reduced  to  1/25".  With  exposure 
of  1/50",  however,  he  could  not  make  out  the  figures,  for  which 
reason  tests  with  this  exposure  were  discontinued.  In  general 
these  scores  are  higher  than  those  for  pictures;  with  exposure 
of  1/10"  the  results  are  the  same  for  pictures  and  figures.  As  in 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


35 


the  scores  for  pictures  the  results  with  exposure  of  1/5"  are 
better  than  those  with  1"  exposure.  The  difference,  however, 
for  figures  is  less  marked.  The  scores  for  figures  decline  rapidly 
after  the  1/5"  mark  has  been  reached. 

It  would  then  seem  that  figures  offer  greater  facility  for  ap¬ 
prehension  than  pictures  but  that  this  advantage  disappears  with 
the  shortening  of  the  stimulation  time  to  1/10". 

The  scores  for  delayed  recognition  are  on  the  whole  consider¬ 
ably  lower  than  those  for  immediate  recognition.  They  are  30, 
32,  15,  and  7  per  cent  for  the  respective  exposures.  The  differ¬ 
ences  between  the  two  series  of  scores  for  the  respective  exposures 
are  22,  21,  20,  and  16  per  cent;  there  is,  therefore,  a  somewhat 
sharper  decline  in  the  score  for  immediate  than  in  that  for  de¬ 
layed  recognition.  With  pictures  the  opposite  tendency  appeared. 
The  difference  between  the  scores  was  negligible  for  1"  exposure 
but  increased  rapidly  for  exposures  of  1/5"  and  1/10".  It  is 
probable  that  retroactive  inhibition  is  more  pronounced  in  de¬ 
layed  than  in  immediate  recognition,  and  we  would  therefore  con¬ 
clude  that  with  figures  this  condition  is  not  in  evidence. 

Subject:  H-n 

Experiments  with  Pictures.  The  following  results  were  ob¬ 
tained  in  Experiment  II  (Table  IX).  In  immediate  recognition 
the  scores  are  95,  100,  93,  90,  and  87  per  cent  for  exposures  of 
1 ",  1/5",  1 /To",  1/25",  and  1/50"  respectively.  The  results 
for  1/5"  exposure  are  better  than  those  for  1"  exposure,  below 
there  is  a  gradual  decline  along  the  series.  The  difference  be¬ 
tween  the  highest  and  lowest  figures  in  the  score  is  small,  viz : 
13  per  cent,  hence  a  gradual  shortening  of  the  stimulation  time 
from  1/5"  to  1/50"  has  a  moderate,  derogatory  effect  on  ap¬ 
prehension. 

The  score  for  delayed  recognition  is  identical  with  that  for 
immediate  recognition  with  the  exception  that  with  exposure  of 
1/50"  the  score  is  7  per  cent  lower.  An  interval  of  3'  between 
exposure  and  selection  has,  therefore,  practically  no  influence 
upon  the  results. 


36 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANT S 


Table  IX 

Summary  of  Experiments  urith  Pictures  and  Variation  in  Time  of  Exposure. 

Subject:  H-n. 

i.  Immediate  Recognition 


No.  of 

Time  of 

R 

Hes. 

w 

N  T 

Score 

No.  of 

Exp’t 

Exposure 

R 

W 

per  cent 

Tests 

II. 

I" 

39 

— 

— 

I 

-  40 

95 

4 

IV. 

i/5" 

20 

— 

— 

— 

-  20 

100 

2 

II. 

1/10" 

29 

— 

— 

I 

“  30 

93 

3 

II. 

1/25" 

19 

— 

— 

I 

-  20 

90 

2 

II. 

1/50" 

28 

— 

— 

2 

-  30 

87 

3  14 

No.  of 
Exp’t 

Time  of 
Expos. 

R 

2.  Recall  and  Delayed  Recognition 

Recall  Delayed  Recognition 

Hes.  W  N  T  Score  R  Hes.  W  N  T 

Score 

No. 

of 

II. 

i" 

6 

R  W 

4  10 

per  cent 

60 

9 

R  W 

I 

-  10 

per  cent 
80 

Tests 

I 

IV. 

i/5" 

12 

—  — 

— 

8  20 

60 

18 

—  — 

2 

-  20 

80 

2 

II. 

1/10" 

12 

—  — 

— 

8  20 

60 

19 

—  — 

I 

-  20 

90 

2 

II. 

1/25" 

6 

—  — 

— 

4  10 

60 

9 

—  — 

I 

-  10 

80 

I 

II. 

i/5o" 

5 

—  — 

— 

5  10 

50 

9 

—  — 

I 

-  10 

80 

I 

7 

3.  Delayed  Recognition 


No.  of 

Time  of 

R 

Hes. 

W 

N  T 

Score 

No.  of 

Exp’t 

Exposure 

R 

W 

per  cent 

Tests 

II. 

I" 

38 

— 

2 

— 

-  40 

95 

4 

IV. 

i/5" 

20 

— 

— 

— 

-  20 

100 

2 

II. 

1/10" 

29 

— 

— 

I 

-  30 

93 

3 

II. 

1/25" 

19 

— 

— 

I 

-  20 

90 

2 

II. 

1/50" 

27 

— 

— 

3 

-  30 

80 

3  14 

Total  tests  35 


The  score  for  delayed  recognition  after  recall  is  80  per  cent 
for  each  item  with  the  exception  of  exposure  for  1/10"  in  which 
case  the  score  is  90  per  cent. 

The  results  for  recall  are  considerably  lower  than  those  for 
recognition.  The  scores  are  60  per  cent  for  exposures  from  1" 
to  1/25",  and  50  per  cent  for  1/50"  exposure.  It  seems,  then, 
that  in  this  subject  a  variation  in  stimulation  time  has  little  effect 
on  recall  and  on  delayed  recognition  after  recall. 

Experiments  with  Figures.  Experiment  III  gave  the  results  in 
Table  X.  In  immediate  recognition  the  scores  are  95,  85,  83,  80, 
and  80  per  cent  for  the  respective  exposures  from  1"  to  1/50". 
These  scores  are  somewhat  lower  than  the  corresponding  scores 
for  pictures,  the  differences  for  the  various  exposures  being  o,  15, 
10,  10,  and  7  per  cent.  With  decreased  stimulation  time  the 
score  drops  somewhat  less  rapidly  than  that  for  pictures.  An- 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


37 


Table  X 

Summary  of  Experiments  with  Figures  and  Variation  in  Time  of  Exposure 

Subject :  H-n. 

I.  Immediate  Recognition 


No.  of 

Time  of 

R 

Hes. 

w 

N 

T 

Score 

No.  of 

Exp’t. 

hi. 

Exposure 

1" 

19 

R 

W 

1 

20 

per  cent 

95 

Tests 

2 

V. 

i/5" 

26 

1 

2 

I 

— 

30 

85 

3 

III. 

1/10" 

36 

— 

1 

3 

— 

40 

83 

4 

III. 

1/25" 

18 

— 

— 

2 

— 

20 

80 

2 

III. 

1/50" 

18 

— 

— 

2 

— 

20 

80 

2  13 

I’ll. 

1" 

2.  Delayed  Recognition 
18  -  -  2 

20 

80 

2 

V. 

i/5" 

26 

— 

1 

3 

— 

30 

77 

3 

III. 

1/10" 

35 

— 

— 

5 

— 

40 

75 

4 

III. 

1/25" 

35 

— 

— 

5 

— 

40 

75 

4 

III. 

1/50" 

17 

— 

— 

3 

— 

20 

70 

2  15 

Total  tests  28 

other  difference  will  be  found  in  the  fact  that  with  figures  the  best 
results  are  obtained  with  a  stimulation  time  of  i"  as  against  that 
of  1/5"  with  pictures. 

In  delayed  recognition  the  scores  for  the  respective  exposures 
are  80,  77,  75,  75,  and  70  per  cent.  The  corresponding  differ¬ 
ences  between  these  scores  and  those  in  immediate  recognition 
are  15,  8,  8,  5,  and  10  per  cent.  With  this  material  we  find, 
therefore,  a  marked  influence  of  the  retention  time  factor  on 
recognition.  The  influence  of  a  gradual  shortening  of  the  stimu¬ 
lation  time  is  less  marked  than  was  the  case  in  immediate  recog¬ 
nition. 

Differences  in  results  arising  from  emotional  or  interest  effect 
of  the  material  were  not  noticed  in  the  experiments  with  this 
subject. 

Subject:  D-n 

Experiments  with  Pictures.  The  results  of  Experiment  II  are 
found  in  Table  XI.  In  immediate  recognition  the  scores  are  68, 
63,  57,  30,  and  15  per  cent  respectively  for  exposures  from  1" 
to  1/50".  There  is  an  increasing  decline  in  the  scores  with  a 
gradual  reduction  in  stimulation  time,  the  difference  between  the 
scores  for  1"  and  1/50"  exposure  being  53  per  cent. 

A  similar  decline  is  found  in  delayed  recognition,  the  scores 


38 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANTS 


Table  XI' 

Summary  of  Experiments  with  Pictures  and  Variation  in  Time  of  Exposure. 

Subject:  D-n. 

i.  Immediate  Recognition 


No.  of 

Time  of 

R 

Hes. 

W 

N  T 

Score 

No.  of 

Exp’t 

Exposure 

R 

W 

per  cent 

Tests 

II. 

I" 

15 

I 

— 

2 

2  20 

68 

2 

IV. 

i/5" 

24 

— 

I 

5 

“  30 

63 

3 

II. 

1/10" 

22 

— 

I 

5 

2  30 

57 

3 

II. 

1/25" 

5 

— 

— 

2 

3  10 

30 

I 

ir. 

1/50" 

10 

— 

— 

7 

3  20 

15 

2  II 

2. 

Recall  and  Delayed  Recognition 

No.  of 

Time  of 

Recall 

Delayed 

Recognition 

Exp’t 

Expos. 

R 

Hes.  W  N  T 

Score 

R 

Hes. 

w 

N  T 

Score 

No.  of 

R 

w 

per  cent 

R 

W 

per  cent 

Tests 

II. 

i" 

5 

— 

-  -  5  10 

50 

8 

— 

— 

2 

-  IO 

60 

I 

IV. 

i/5" 

19 

— 

-  -  n  30 

63 

25 

— 

— 

5 

~  30 

67 

3 

II. 

1/10" 

6 

— 

-  -  4  10 

60 

6 

— 

— 

2 

2  10 

40 

1 

II. 

1/25" 

5 

— 

-  -  5  10 

50 

6 

— 

— 

4 

-  10 

20 

I 

II. 

1/50" 

4 

— 

-  -  6  10 

40 

4 

— 

— 

6 

-  IO 

-20 

1  7 

3.  Delayed  Recognition 


No.  of 

Time  of 

R 

Hes. 

W 

N  T 

Score 

No.  of 

Exp’t 

Exposure 

R  W 

per  cent 

Tests 

II. 

I" 

l6 

—  — 

4 

-  20 

60 

2 

IV. 

i/5" 

23 

-  I 

6 

“  30 

57 

3 

II. 

1/10" 

27 

—  — 

6 

7  40 

53 

4 

II. 

1/25" 

6 

—  — 

4 

-  10 

20 

I 

II. 

1/50" 

7 

—  — 

6 

7  20 

5 

2  12 

Total  tests  30 

being  60,  57,  53,  20,  and  5  per  cent.  The  difference  between  the 
scores  for  1"  and  for  1/50"  exposure  is  55  per  cent,  hence  prac¬ 
tically  the  same  as  that  in  immediate  recognition.  The  differ¬ 
ences  in  score  between  immediate  and  delayed  recognition  for 
the  various  exposures  from  1"  to  1/50"  are  8,  6,  4,  10,  and  10 
per  cent  respectively.  An  interval  of  3'  between  exposure  and 
selection,  therefore,  moderately  lowers  the  results  in  recognition. 

The  average  result  for  delayed  recognition  after  recall,  if  we 
except  the  score  for  1/50"  exposure,  is  practically  the  same  as 
that  for  delayed  recognition  without  recall.  The  difference  ap¬ 
pearing  with  exposure  of  1/50"  is  not  of  sufficient  value  for 
drawing  conclusions.  It  would  therefore  seem  that  the  effort  to 
recall  has  no  noticeable  effect  upon  delayed  recognition. 

The  average  recall  score  is  higher  than  that  for  immediate 
recognition.  The  recall  scores  are  50,  63,  60,  50,  and  40  per  cent 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


39 


for  the  respective  exposures.  The  highest  score  is  obtained  with 
exposure  for  1/5",  below  there  is  a  gradual  decline,  less  marked 
than  in  recognition.  The  recall  memory  seems,  therefore,  to  be 
superior  to  the  recognition  memory  with  this  subject. 

Table  XII 


Summary  of  Experiments  with  Figures  and  Variation  in  Time  of  Exposure. 

Subject:  D-n. 

1.  Immediate  Recognition 


No.  of 

Time  of 

R 

Hes. 

w 

N 

T 

Score 

No.  of 

Exp’t. 

III. 

Exposure 

1" 

14 

R 

W 

3 

3 

20 

per  cent 

55 

Tests 

2 

V. 

i/5" 

20 

— 

1 

9 

— 

30 

37 

3 

III. 

1/10" 

26 

— 

— 

10 

4 

40 

40 

4 

III. 

1/25" 

8 

— 

— 

6 

6 

20 

10 

2 

III. 

1/25" 

9 

— 

— 

8 

3 

20 

5 

2  13 

III. 

1" 

2.  Delayed  Recognition 

11  1  -  4 

4 

20 

38 

2 

V. 

i/5" 

18 

— 

— 

12 

30 

20 

3 

III. 

1/10" 

21 

1 

— 

13 

5 

40 

21 

4 

III. 

1/25" 

10 

— 

— 

10 

— 

20 

0 

2 

III. 

1/50" 

6 

— 

— 

12 

2 

20 

-30 

2  13 

Total  tests  26 


Experiments  with  Figures.  The  following  results  were  ob¬ 
tained  in  Experiment  III  (Table  XII).  In  immediate  recognition 
the  scores  are  55,  37,  40,  10,  and  5  per  cent  for  the  respective 
exposures.  These  scores  are  lower  than  the  corresponding  scores 
for  pictures,  the  difference  for  the  various  exposures  being  13, 
26,  17,  20,  and  10  per  cent  respectively.  On  the  whole  the  scores 
decline  with  reduced  stimulation  time  at  a  rate  similar  with  that 
for  pictures. 

In  delayed  recognition  the  scores  for  the  respective  ex¬ 
posures  are  38,  20,  21,  o,  and  -30  per  cent.  The  differences  be¬ 
tween  immediate  and  delayed  recognition  for  the  various  ex¬ 
posures  from  1"  to  1/50"  are  17,  17,  19,  10,  and  35  per  cent. 
These  differences  are  considerably  larger  than  the  corresponding 
differences  for  pictures,  hence  an  interval  of  3'  between  exposure 
and  selection  reduces  the  results  in  recognition  more  with  figures 
than  with  pictures. 

A  slight  influence  of  emotional  connotation  in  the  material 
was  noticed  in  experiments  with  pictures,  those  of  children  mak¬ 
ing  a  particular  appeal  to  the  subject. 


40 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANTS 


2.  Variation  in  Number  of  Cards 

Subject :  McG 

Experiments  with  Pictures.  The  results  in  Experiment  IV  are 
shown  in  Table  XIII.  In  immediate  recognition  the  scores  are 

Table  XIII 


Summary  of  Experiments  with  Pictures  and  Variation  in  Number  of  Cards. 

Subject:  McG. 

i.  Immediate  Recognition 


No.  of 

No.  of 

R 

Hes. 

w 

N  T 

Score 

No.  of 

Exp’t 

Cards 

R 

W 

per  cent 

Tests 

IV. 

3 

5 

— 

— 

I 

-  6 

67 

2 

IV. 

5 

21 

— 

— 

4 

“  25 

68 

5 

IV. 

7 

16 

— 

— 

5 

-  21 

52 

3 

IV. 

9 

13 

— 

— 

5 

-  18 

44 

2  12 

2. 

Recall  and  Delayed  Recognition 

No.  of 

No.  of 

Recall 

Delayed  Recognition 

Exp’t 

Cards 

R 

Hes. 

W 

N 

T 

Score 

R 

Hes. 

W 

N 

T 

Score 

No. 

of 

R 

W 

per  cent 

R 

W 

per  cent 

Tests 

IV. 

3 

3 

— 

— 

— 

— 

3 

IOO 

2 

— 

— 

I 

— 

3 

33 

I 

IV. 

5 

8 

— 

— 

— 

12 

20 

40 

l6 

— 

— 

4 

— 

20 

60 

4 

IV. 

7 

5 

— 

— 

— 

9 

14 

36 

9 

— 

— 

5 

— 

14 

29 

2 

IV. 

9 

4 

— 

— 

3 

II 

18 

22 

10 

— 

— 

8 

— 

18 

22 

2 

9 

3- 

Delayed  Recognition 

No.  of 

No.  of 

R 

Hes. 

w 

N 

T 

Score 

No. 

of 

Exp’t 

Cards 

R 

w 

per  cent 

Tests 

IV. 

3 

4 

— 

2 

— 

— 

6 

33 

2 

IV. 

5 

16 

— 

2 

7 

— 

25 

36 

5 

IV. 

7 

13 

— 

— 

8 

— 

21 

24 

3 

IV. 

9 

9 

I 

— 

8 

— 

18 

8 

2 

12 

Total  tests  33 


67,  68,  52,  and  44  per  cent  for  exposures  of  3,  5,  7,  and  9  cards 
respectively.  Slightly  better  results  are  obtained  with  5  than 
with  3  cards.  With  more  than  5  cards  the  results  show  a  grad¬ 
ual  decline. 

In  delayed  recognition  the  results  are  considerably  lower,  the 
corresponding  scores  being  33,  36,  24,  and  8  per  cent.  We  find 
the  following  differences  between  the  two  series  of  scores:  34, 
32,  28,  and  36  per  cent.  The  greatest  difference  appears  for  the 
9-card  set  and  the  smallest  for  the  7-card  set,  with  a  gradual  in¬ 
crease  towards  the  smaller  sets. 

In  delayed  recognition  after  recall  the  results  are  better  than 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


4i 


in  delayed  recognition  without  recall,  the  scores  being  33,  60, 
29,  and  22  per  cent  for  the  respective  sets  of  cards.  This  was 
not  generally  the  case  in  Exp.  II,  and  the  difference  may  be  due 
to  the  fact  that  Exp.  IV  occurs  in  the  middle  of  the  series  and  is 
therefore  preceded  by  a  period  of  training.  The  figures  in  Table 
V  for  exposure  of  1/5",  which  are  the  only  ones  to  show  this 
tendency  in  that  table,  are  largely  taken  from  Exp.  IV. 

The  recall  scores  are  100,  40,  36,  and  22  per  cent  for  the  re¬ 
spective  sets  of  cards.  Hence  the  recall  memory  is  perfect  for  3 
cards  and  superior  to  the  recognition  memory  for  the  same  num¬ 
ber  of  items,  but  with  an  increased  number  of  cards  it  is  inferior 
to  the  recognition  memory. 

Experiments  with  Figures.  Table  XIV  shows  the  results  in 

Table  XIV 

Summary  of  Experiments  with  Figures,  and  Variation  in  Number  of  Cards. 

Subject:  McG. 

1.  Immediate  Recognition 


No.  of 

No.  of 

R  Hes.  W 

N 

T 

Score 

No.  of 

Exp’t 

Cards 

R  W 

per  cent 

Tests 

V. 

3 

4  -  -  2 

— 

6 

33 

2 

V. 

5 

19  -  11 

— 

30 

27 

6 

V. 

7 

15  -  -  13 

— 

28 

7 

4 

V. 

9 

18  -  -  18 

— 

36 

0 

4  16 

2.  Delayed  Recognition 

V. 

3 

4  -  -  2 

— 

6 

33 

2 

V. 

5 

17  -  -  13 

— 

30 

13 

6 

V. 

7 

13  -  -  15 

— 

28 

-7 

4 

V. 

9 

18  -  -  18 

— 

36 

0 

4  16 

Total  tests  32 


experiments  with  figures.  The  immediate  recognition  scores  are 
33,  27,  7,  and  o  per  cent  for  sets  of  3,  5,  7,  and  9  cards  respec¬ 
tively.  These  scores  are  lower  and  decline  more  rapidly  than 
those  for  pictures,  the  differences  for  the  four  sets  being  34,  41, 
45,  and  44  per  cent  respectively.  The  slight  advantage  of  the 
5-card  set  over  that  of  3  cards  with  pictures  does  not  obtain  with 
figures. 

In  delayed  recognition  the  scores  are  33,  13,  -7,  and  o  per  cent 
for  the  respective  sets  of  cards.  The  corresponding  differences 
from  the  immediate  recognition  scores  are  o,  14,  14,  and  o  per 


42 


JOHAN  L1LJENCRANTS 


cent;  they  are  considerably  smaller  and  less  evenly  distributed 
than  those  for  pictures. 

We  may  conclude  that  the  subject  is  able  to  take  in  a  set  of 
3  pictures  sufficiently  well  for  immediate  recall,  but  is  unable  to 
take  in  enough  characteristics  of  the  same  number  of  items  of 
either  material  to  distinguish  them  well  from  similar  pictures  or 
figures.  With  an  increase  in  the  number  of  items  to  the  set,  how¬ 
ever,  the  results  for  recall  become  inferior  to  those  for  recogni¬ 
tion. 


Table  XV 


Summary  of  Experiments  with  Pictures  and  Variation  in  Number  of  Cards. 

Subject:  E-n. 


1.  Immediate  Recognition 

No.  of 

Exp’t 

No.  of 

Cards 

R  Hes. 

R  W 

W 

N 

T 

Score 
per  cent 

No.  of 
Tests 

IV. 

3 

4  “  - 

2 

— 

6 

33 

2 

IV. 

5 

17  I  - 

6 

I 

25 

46 

5 

IV. 

7 

14  -  - 

7 

— 

21 

33 

3 

IV. 

9 

12  -  - 

6 

— 

18 

33 

2  12 

2.  Recall  and  Delayed  Recognitio 

n 

Exp’t 

Cards 

Recall 

Delayed  Recognition 

No.  of 

No.  of 

R 

Hes.  W  N  T 

Score 

R 

Hes. 

W  N  T 

Score 

No. 

of 

R  W 

per  cent 

R  W 

per  cent 

Tests 

IV. 

3 

I 

-  “  “  2  3 

33 

3 

—  — 

-  -  3 

IOO 

I 

IV. 

5 

4 

-  -  -  l6  20 

20 

9 

—  — 

8  3  20 

5 

4 

IV. 

7 

3 

-  -  -  II  14 

21 

7 

-  I 

5  1  14 

14 

2 

IV. 

9 

2 

-  -  -  l6  l8 

11 

11 

I  - 

6-18 

3i 

2 

9 

No.  of 

3.  Delayed  Recognition 

No.  of  R  Hes. 

w 

N  T 

Score 

No.  of 

Exp’t 

IV. 

Cards 

3 

R  W 

3  -  ~ 

3 

-  6 

per  cent 

0 

Tests 

2 

IV. 

5 

16  -  - 

9 

-  25 

28 

5 

IV. 

7 

II  -  - 

10 

-  21 

5 

3 

IV. 

9 

9  -  - 

9 

-  18 

0 

2  12 

Total  tests  33 


Subject:  E-n 

Experiments  with  Pictures.  Table  XV  shows  the  results  in 
Experiment  IV.  The  scores  for  immediate  recognition  are  33, 
46,  33,  and  33  per  cent  for  the  corresponding  sets  of  3,  5,  7,  and 
9  cards.  The  score  for  5  cards  is  superior  to  that  for  3  items, 
and  with  7  and  9  cards  to  the  set  the  scores  are  the  same  as  for 
the  3-card  set. 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


43 


In  delayed  recognition  the  scores  are  o,  28,  5,  and  o  per  cent  for 
the  corresponding  sets.  The  differences  for  the  four  sets  between 
the  scores  in  delayed  and  in  immediate  recognition  are  33,  18, 
28,  and  33  per  cent  respectively.  The  result  for  the  3-card  set 
is  rather  confusing  and  should  probably  be  ascribed  to  an  oc¬ 
casionally  recurring  ‘'absent-mindedness”  in  the  subject,  observed 
in  these  experiments.  The  remaining  delayed  recognition  scores 
differ  from  the  immediate  recognition  scores  at  a  rate  increasing 
with  the  number  of  cards  to  the  set. 

In  delayed  recognition  after  recall  the  scores  are  100,  5,  14, 
and  31  per  cent  respectively.  The  high  score  for  the  3-card  set 
may  possibly  be  ascribed  to  a  tendency  opposite  to  that  recorded 
in  connection  with  delayed  recognition  without  recall  and  ob¬ 
served  in  the  experiment.  Occasionally,  although  rarely,  the 
subject  would  make  a  rapid  selection,  being  very  positive  about 
the  results  which  then  usually  were  correct.  The  remaining 
scores  show  a  gradual  increase,  not  found  in  the  scores  for  imme¬ 
diate  recognition,  delayed  recognition  without  recall,  and  recall. 

The  recall  scores  are  33,  20,  21,  and  11  per  cent  for  the  re¬ 
spective  sets  of  cards.  With  exception  of  the  almost  equal  scores 
for  5-  and  7-card  sets,  the  scores  decline  gradually  with  an  in¬ 
crease  in  items  to  the  set.  For  3-card  sets  the  score  equals  the 
immediate  recognition  score,  for  larger  sets  it  is  inferior  to  the 
latter. 


Table  XVI 


Summary  of  Experiments  with  Figures  and  Variation  in  Number  of  Cards. 

Subject:  E  n. 


No.  of 

No.  of 

R  Hes.  W  N 

T 

Score 

No.  of 

Exp’t 

Cards 

R  W 

per  cent 

Tests 

1.  Immediate  Recognition 

V. 

3 

4  -  -  2  - 

6 

33 

2 

V. 

5 

23  -  -  7  - 

30 

53 

6 

V. 

7 

19  -  -  9  - 

28 

34 

4 

V. 

9 

22  -  -  14  - 

36 

22 

4  16 

2.  Delayed  Recognition 

V. 

3 

4  -  ~  2 

6 

33 

2 

V. 

5 

19  1  -  10  - 

30 

32 

6 

V. 

7 

18  -  -  10  - 

28 

29 

4 

V. 

9 

21  15 

36 

1 7 

4  16 

Total  tests  32 

44 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANTS 


Experiments  with  Figures.  Table  XVI  gives  the  results  in  Ex¬ 
periment  V.  The  immediate  recognition  scores  are  33,  53,  34, 
and  22  per  cent  for  the  four  sets  of  cards  respectively.  Of  these 
the  scores  for  3-  and  7-card  sets  are  identical  or  almost  identical 
with,  those  for  5-card  sets  higher,  and  those  for  3-card  sets  lower 
than  the  corresponding  picture  scores. 

In  delayed  recognition  the  scores  are  33,  32,  29,  and  17  per 
cent,  thus  showing  a  gradually  increasing  decline  with  an  increas¬ 
ing  number  of  items  to  the  set.  We  find  the  following  differ¬ 
ences  between  the  scores  in  delayed  and  in  immediate  recognition 
for  the  four  sets  respectively :  o,  21,  5,  and  5  per  cent. 

Subject:  H-n 

Experiments  with  Pictures.  The  results  obtained  in  Experi¬ 
ment  IV  are  shown  in  Table  XVII.  In  immediate  recognition  the 
scores  are  100  per  cent  for  sets  up  to  and  including  15  items  and 
90  per  cent  for  20  items. 

Table  XVII 

Summary  of  Experiments  with  Pictures  and  Variation  in  Number  of  Cards. 

Subject:  H- n. 

1.  Immediate  Recognition 


No.  of 

No.  of 

R 

Hes. 

W 

N 

T 

Score 

No.  of 

Exp’t 

Cards 

R 

W 

per  cent 

Tests 

IV. 

5 

5 

— 

— 

— 

— 

5 

100 

I 

IV. 

10 

20 

— 

— 

— 

— 

20 

100 

2 

IV. 

15 

15 

— 

— 

— 

— 

15 

IOO 

I 

IV. 

20 

19 

— 

— 

I 

— 

20 

90 

i  5 

2.  Recall 

and  Delayed  Recognition 

No.  of 

No.  of 

Recall 

Delayed 

Recognition 

Exp’t 

Cards 

R  Hes.  W 

N 

T 

Score 

R 

Hes. 

w 

N 

T 

Score 

No.  of 

R  W 

per  cent 

R 

W 

per  cent 

Tests 

IV. 

5 

9  -  -  - 

I 

10 

90 

10 

— 

— 

— 

— 

IO 

IOO 

2 

IV. 

10 

12  -  -  - 

8 

20 

60 

18 

— 

— 

2 

— 

20 

80 

2 

IV. 

15 

14  -  -  - 

16 

30 

47 

28 

— 

— 

2 

— 

30 

87 

2 

IV. 

20 

13  ~  ~  “ 

7 

20 

65 

19 

— 

— 

I 

— 

20 

90 

1  7 

No.  of 

3.  Delayed  Recognition 

No.  of  ~  R  Hes. 

w 

N  T 

Score 

No.  of 

Exp’t 

IV. 

Cards 

5 

R  W 

5  -  - 

__ 

-  5 

per  cent 

IOO 

Tests 

I 

IV. 

10 

20  -  - 

— 

-  20 

IOO 

2 

IV. 

15 

13  1  - 

1 

-  15 

83 

I 

IV. 

20 

18  -  - 

2 

-  20 

80 

1  5 

Total  tests  17 

MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


45 


In  delayed  recognition  the  scores  are  ioo,  ioo,  83,  and  80  per 
cent  for  sets  of  5,  10,  15,  and  20  cards  respectively.  The  differ¬ 
ences  between  the  scorees  in  delayed  and  in  immediate  recognition 
are  for  the  four  sets  respectively:  o,  o,  17,  and  10  per  cent. 

In  delayed  recognition  after  recall  the  scores  are  100,  80,  87, 
and  90  per  cent  for  the  respective  sets  of  cards.  Comparing  these 
scores  with  those  in  delayed  recognition  without  recall  we  find 
them  equal  for  5-card  sets;  for  10-card  sets  the  former  are  in¬ 
ferior,  and  for  15-  and  20-card  sets  increasingly  superior.  The 
former  scores  shows  a  tendency  to  rise,  the  latter  to  decline  with 
an  increase  in  items  beyond  10  to  the  set. 

The  recall  scores  are  90,  60,  47,  and  65  per  cent  for  the  re¬ 
spective  sets.  They  are  inferior  to  the  corresponding  scores  in 
immediate  recognition,  the  differences  being  10,  40,  53,  and  25 
per  cent  respectively.  We  note  a  general  tendency  to  decline  with 
an  increase  in  items  to  the  set  and  an  exception  to  this  tendency 
in  the  results  for  20-card  sets.  This  final  rise  in  the  score  shows 
a  tendency  similar  to  that  found  in  the  scores  for  delayed  recog¬ 
nition  after  recall. 

Experiments  with  Figures.  Table  XVIII  shows  the  results  in 

Table  XVIII 


Summary  of  Experiments  with  Figures  and  Variation  in  Number  of  Cards. 

Subject :  H-n. 

1.  Immediate  Recognition 


No.  of 

No.  of 

R 

Hes. 

W 

N 

T 

Score 

No.  of 

Exp’t 

Cards 

R 

W 

per  cent  Tests 

V. 

5 

18 

— 

1 

1 

— 

20 

85 

4 

V. 

10 

26 

1 

2 

1 

— 

30 

85 

3 

V. 

15 

27 

— 

— 

3 

— 

30 

80 

2 

V. 

20 

16 

— 

— 

4 

— 

20 

60 

1  10 

2.  Delayed  Recognition 

V. 

5 

1 7 

— 

1 

2 

— 

20 

75 

4 

V. 

10 

26 

— 

1 

3 

— 

30 

77 

3 

V. 

15 

26 

— 

1 

3 

— 

30 

77 

2 

V. 

20 

15 

— 

— 

5 

— 

20 

50 

1  10 

Total  tests  20 

Experiment  V.  The 

immediate 

recognition 

scores  are 

85,  85, 

80,  and  60  per  cent  for  the  respective  sets  of  cards.  They  are 
considerably  lower  and  decline  more  rapidly  than  the  correspond- 


46 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANT S 


ing  scores  for  pictures,  the  differences  for  the  four  sets  respec¬ 
tively  being  15,  15,  20,  and  30  per  cent. 

In  delayed  recognition  the  scores  are  75,  77,  77,  and  50  per 
cent  for  the  respective  sets  of  cards.  We  note  the  slight  inferi¬ 
ority  of  the  score  for  5-card  sets  to  that  for  10-  and  15-card 
sets,  not  found  elsewhere  with  this  subject.  The  differences  be¬ 
tween  the  scores  in  delayed  and  in  immediate  recognition  for  the 
four  sets  respectively  are  10,  8,  3,  and  10  per  cent,  The  average 
difference  for  figures  is  slightly  in  excess  of  that  for  pictures. 
We  note  that  with  pictures  the  difference  is  greatest  for  15-card 
sets  and  absent  for  5-  and  10-card  sets,  whereas  with  figures  the 
greatest  differences  appear  for  5-  and  20-card  sets  and  the  small¬ 
est  for  15-card  sets. 


Subject:  D-n 

Experiments  with  Pictures.  Table  XIX  gives  the  results  in 

Table  XIX 

Summary  of  Experiments  with  Pictures  and  Variation  in  Number  of  Cards. 

Subject:  D-n. 

1.  Immediate  Recognition 


No.  of 

No.  of 

R 

Hes. 

W 

N 

T 

Score 

No.  of 

Exp’t 

Cards 

R  W 

per  cent 

Tests 

IV. 

5 

4 

—  — 

I 

— 

5 

60 

I 

IV. 

10 

24 

-  I 

5 

— 

30 

63 

3 

IV. 

15 

24 

-  I 

5 

— 

30 

63 

2 

IV. 

20 

16 

—  .  — 

4 

20 

60 

1  7 

2. 

Recall  and  Delayed  Recognition 

No.  of 

No.  of 

Recall 

Delayed  Recognition 

Exp’t 

Cards 

R 

Hes.  W  N  T 

Score 

R 

Hes. 

w 

N 

T 

Score 

No.  of 

R 

W 

per  cent 

R  W 

per  cent 

Tests 

IV. 

5 

7 

— 

-  -  3  10 

70 

9 

—  — 

1 

— 

IO 

80 

2 

IV. 

TO 

19 

— 

-  -  II  30 

63 

25 

—  — 

5 

— 

30 

67 

3 

IV. 

15 

12 

— 

-  -  l8  30 

40 

24 

—  — 

6 

— 

30 

60 

2 

IV. 

20 

7 

— 

-  ~  13  20 

35 

15 

—  — 

5 

— 

20 

50 

1  8 

3. 

Delayed  Recognition 

No.  of 

No.  of  R  Hes. 

w 

N  T 

Score 

No.  of 

Exp’t 

Cards 

R 

w 

per  cent 

Tests 

IV. 

5 

4  - 

— 

I 

-  5 

60 

I 

IV. 

10 

23  - 

1 

6 

-  30 

57 

3 

IV. 

15 

19  - 

— 

11 

-  30 

27 

2 

IV. 

20 

12  1 

— 

7 

-  20 

28 

i  7 

Total  tests  22 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


47 


Experiment  IV.  The  immediate  recognition  scores  are  60,  63, 
63,  and  60  per  cent  for  sets  of  5,  10,  15,  and  20  cards  respective¬ 
ly.  There  is  little  variation  between  the  scores,  which  would  in¬ 
dicate  that  about  the  same  proportion  of  items  is  taken  in  for 
small  as  for  large  sets. 

In  delayed  recognition  the  scores  are  60,  57,  27,  and  28  per 
cent  for  the  respective  sets  of  cards.  The  differences  between  the 
scores  in  delayed  and  in  immediate  recognition  for  the  four  sets 
respectively  are  o,  6,  36,  and  32  per  cent.  It  would  therefore 
seem  that  an  increase  in  items  beyond  10  to  the  set  greatly  re¬ 
duces  retention. 

In  delayed  recognition  after  recall  the  scores  are  80,  67,  60, 
and  50  per  cent.  They  are  higher  throughout  and  show  slightly 
less  decline  than  those  for  delayed  recognition  without  recall. 
The  scores  for  the  two  smaller  sets  are  higher,  those  for  the  two 
larger  sets  lower  than  the  corresponding  scores  for  immediate 
recognition. 

The  recall  scores  are  70,  63,  40,  and  35  per  cent  for  the  re¬ 
spective  sets  of  cards.  For  5-card  sets  the  score  is  higher  than, 
for  10-card  sets  equal  to,  and  for  15-and  20-card  sets  lower  than 
that  for  immediate  recognition.  The  sharpest  decline  occurs  with 
15-card  sets. 

Experiments  with  Figures.  Table  XX  gives  the  results  ob¬ 
tained  in  Experiment  V.  In  immediate  recognition  the  scores 

Table  XX 


Summary  of  Experiments  with  Figures  and  Variation  in  Number  of  Cards 

Subject:  D-n. 

1.  Immediate  Recognition 


No.  of 

No.  of 

R  Hes.  W 

N 

T 

Score 

No.  of 

Exp’t 

Cards 

R  W 

per  cent 

Tests 

V. 

5 

13  -  ~  7 

— 

20 

30 

4 

V. 

10 

20  -  1  9 

— 

30 

37 

3 

V. 

15 

19  -  11 

— 

30 

27 

2 

V. 

20 

12  -  -  8 

— 

20 

20 

1  10 

2.  Delayed  Recognition 

V. 

5 

11  -  -  8 

— 

20 

20 

4 

V. 

10 

18  -  12 

— 

30 

20 

3 

V. 

15 

is  -  -  15 

— 

30 

0 

2 

V. 

20 

10  -  -  10 

— 

20 

0 

1  10 

Total  tests  20 


48 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANTS 


are  30,  37,  27,  and  20  per  cent  for  the  respective  sets  of  cards. 
They  are  much  lower  and  decline  more  markedly  than  the  cor¬ 
responding  scores  for  pictures,  the  differences  for  the  four  sets 
respectively  being  30,  26,  36,  and  40  per  cent.  As  with  pictures, 
the  score  for  5-card  sets  is  slightly  inferior  to  that  for  10-card 
sets. 

In  delayed  recognition  the  scores  are  20,  20,  o,  and  o  per  cent 
for  the  respective  sets  of  cards.  The  differences  between  these 
scores  and  those  for  immediate  recognition  are  10,  17,  27,  and 
20  per  cent  respectively,  showing  the  same  deterioration  in  re¬ 
tention  with  large  sets  of  cards  as  was  found  in  the  scores  for 
pictures. 

Figures  3  to  10,  pp.  49-52,  represent  the  results  obtained  in 
Experiments  II  to  V. 

3.  Colored  Pictures 

The  experiments  with  colored  pictures  (Exp.  I  and  VI)  were 
made  partly  to  accustom  the  subjects  to  the  method  of  experi¬ 
mentation,  partly  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  whether  a  pro¬ 
longed  period  of  experimentation  had  changed  the  condition  of 
the  subjects’  memory.  The  results  are  given  in  Table  XXI. 

Table  XXI 

Experiments  with  Colored  Pictures. 

The  first  six  columns  give  per  cent  score. 


Immediate 

Recog. 

Recall 

Delayed 

Recog. 

Interval 

between 

Subjects 

Exp. 

Exp. 

Exp. 

Exp. 

Exp. 

Exp. 

experiments. 

Mc.G. 

I 

vr 

I 

VI 

I 

VI 

-  days  - 

28 

28 

60 

56 

28 

12 

30 

E-n. 

36 

72 

16 

20 

12 

4 

47 

H-n. 

60 

100 

30 

56 

60 

90 

32 

D-n. 

60 

64 

55 

52 

35 

62 

27 

H-n  has  considerably  higher  results  in  Exp.  VI  than  in  Exp.  I, 
due  probably  to  the  training  received  in  the  experimentation. 
The  interval  between  exposure  and  selection  did  not  change  the 
results  in  Exp.  I,  but  a  slight  change  is  found  in  Exp.  VI.  If 
we  assume  that  an  improvement  has  taken  place,  it  is  probably 
in  the  subject’s  apprehension.  E-n  shows  a  similar  improvement 
in  apprehension,  although  his  results  for  delayed  recognition  in 
Exp.  VI  are  inferior  to  those  in  Exp.  I.  The  slightly  higher 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES  49 

results  of  D-n  for  recognition  in  Exp.  VI  over  those  in  Exp.  I 
are  probably  sufficiently  explained  by  an  increased  familiarity 
with  the  experiment.  She  shows  no  improvement  in  recall.  The 
reduced  results  of  McG  for  recall  and  for  delayed  recognition  in 
Exp.  VI  may  be  interpreted  to  indicate  at  least  that  no  improve¬ 
ment  has  taken  place. 


Time  of  Exposure 


Humber  of  Cards 

Fig.  3. — Subject:  McG.  Variation  in  Time  of  Exposure. 

Fig.  4. — Subject:  McG.  Variation  in  Number  of  Cards. 

Both  figures  give  the  results  in  immediate  recognition,  delayed  recognition, 
recall,  and  delayed  recognition  after  recall  with  pictures,  and  in  immediate 
and  in  delayed  recognition  with  figures.  Per  cent  score. 


Scora  (  par  cent 


50 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANTS 


100-1 

90- 

80- 


Timo  of  Expoaura 


Fig.  5. — Subject:  E-n.  Variation  in  Time  of  Exposure. 

Fig.  6. — Subject:  E-n.  Variation  in  Number  of  Cards. 

Both  figures  give  the  results  in  immediate  recognition,  delayed  recognition, 
recall,  and  delayed  recognition  after  recall  with  pictures,  and  in  immediate 
and  in  delayed  recognition  with  figures.  Per  cent  score. 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


5i 


Fig.  7. — Subject:  H-n.  Variation  in  Time  of  Exposure. 

Fig.  8. — Subject:  H-n.  Variation  in  Number  of  Cards. 

Both  figures  give  the  results  in  immediate  recognition,  delayed  recognition, 
recall,  and  delayed  recognition  after  recall  with  pictures,  and  in  immediate 
and  in  delayed  recognition  with  figures.  Per  cent  score. 


52 


JOHAN  LI L JEN CRA NTS 


Fig.  9. — Subject:  D-n.  Variation  in  Time  of  Exposure. 

Fig.  10. — Subject:  D-n.  Variation  in  Number  of  Cards. 

Both  figures  give  the  results  in  immediate  recognition,  delayed  recognition, 
recall,  and  delayed  recognition  after  recall  with  pictures,  and  in  immediate 
and  in  delayed  recognition  with  figures.  Per  cent  score. 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


53 


4.  Repeated  and  Intervening  Stimuli 
A.  Repeated  Stimuli 

The  results  in  Experiment  VII  (Tables  XXII  and  XXIII) 
show  that  with  H-n  a  second  exposure  of  the  cards  improves  the 
results;  subsequent  exposures  seem  to  have  little  or  no  effect. 
With  D-n  each  of  the  four  repetitions  increases  the  results;  the 
greatest  increases  occur  with  the  second  and  the  fourth  repeti¬ 
tions. 


B.  Intervening  Stimuli 

Tables  XXIV  and  XXV  give  the  results  in  Experiment  VIII. 
Comparing  these  with  the  corresponding  results  in  Experiment 
VII  (Tables  XXII  and  XXIII)  we  find  the  following  differences 
between  the  respective  scores: 


Presentations  H-n  D-n 

1.  37%  23% 

2.  33%  22% 

3-  34%  5% 

4.  26%  18% 


In  both  subjects  the  intervening  stimulation  interferes  with  re¬ 
call  memory,  but  this  interference  decreases  with  a  continued 
repetition  of  both  primary  and  secondary  stimuli. 

5.  Primacy  and  Recency 

Tables  XXVI-XXIX  show  the  distribution  of  correct  selections 
in  relation  to  the  order  of  exposure  of  the  cards.  They  include 
only  the  results  of  experiments  with  the  “normal”  sets  of  5  and 
10  cards  respectively. 

McG.  In  immediate  recognition  of  pictures  the  last  two  cards 
are  most  frequently  selected,  the  first  and  the  third  least  frequent¬ 
ly.  In  delayed  recognition  of  pictures  the  third  and  the  last  are 
most  frequently,  the  first  less  frequently  selected.  In  immediate 
recognition  of  figures  the  last  card  is  most  frequently  selected, 
next  in  order  of  frequency  the  third,  and  last  the  first  with  the 
fourth  card  a  close  second.  In  delayed  recognition  of  figures  the 
variation  is  very  insignificant.  With  this  subject  recency  there¬ 
fore  influences  selection  favorably  in  immediate  recognition,  both 


54 


JOHAN  L1LJENCRANTS 


Table  XXII 

Experiments  with  Pictures.  Four  successive  tests  in  which  each  picture  is 
exposed  for  1/5 ".  In  the  first  test  a  set  of  7  pictures  is  presented,  to  which  is 
added  1  picture  for  each  succeeding  test.  Recall  2  minutes  after  each  presen¬ 
tation.  Five  experiments  with  four  tests  each. 


Subject:  H-n 

no. 

Selections 

Score 

R 

W  T 

Per  cent 

1. 

32 

35 

9i 

2. 

39 

40 

98 

3- 

44 

45 

98 

4- 

48 

50 

96 

Table  XXIII 

Experiments  with  Pictures.  Four  successive  tests  in  which  each  picture  is 
exposed  for  1/5".  In  the  first  test  a  set  of  7  pictures  is  presented,  to  which 
is  added)  1  picture  for  each  succeeding  test.  Recall  2  minutes  after  each  pre¬ 
sentation.  Five  experiments  with  four  tests  each. 

Subject:  D-n 

Test  no.  Selections  Score 

R  W  T  Per  cent 


1. 

20 

— 

35 

57 

2. 

30 

— 

40 

75 

3- 

34 

— 

45 

76 

4. 

44 

— 

50 

88 

Table  XXIV 

Experiments  with  Pictures.  Four  successive  tests  in  which  each  picture  is 
exposed  for  1/5" .  In  the  first  test  a  set  of  7  pictures  is  presented,  to  zvhich 
is  added  1  picture  for  each  succeeding  test.  Each  test  is  followed  with  an 
interval  of  30 "  by  a  secondary  test  with  Colored  Pictures  arranged  and  ex¬ 
posed  as  the  pictures  in  the  primary  test.  Recall  2  minutes  after  each  presen¬ 
tation  in  the  primary  test.  Five  experiments  with  four  double  tests  each. 


Subject:  H- 

-n 

no. 

Selections 

Score 

R 

W 

T 

Per  cent 

1. 

24 

5 

35 

54 

2. 

33 

7 

40 

65 

3- 

33 

4 

45 

64 

4- 

4i 

6 

50 

70 

Table  XXV 

Experiments  with  Pictures.  Four  successive  tests  in  which  each  picture  is 
exposed  for  1/5".  In  the  first  test  a  set  of  7  pictures  is  presented,  to  zvhich 
is  added  1  picture  for  each  succeeding  test.  Each  test  is  followed  zvith  an 
interval  of  30"  by  a  secondary  test  with  Colored  Pictures  arranged  and  ex¬ 
posed  as  the  pictures  in  the  primary  test.  Recall  2  minutes  after  each  presen¬ 
tation  in  the  primary  test.  Five  experiments  zvith  four  double  tests  each. 


Subject:  D-n 

no. 

Selections 

Score 

R 

W  T 

Per  cent 

1. 

12 

35 

34 

2. 

21 

40 

53 

3- 

32 

45 

7 1 

4- 

35 

50 

70 

MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


55 


Table  XXVI 
Distribution  of  Selections 

Computed  from  experiments  with  pictures  (P)  and  figures  (F)  in  which  5  cards  are 
exposed  in  succession. 

Recognition  (R g)  and  Retention  (Rt). 


Subject:  McG 

Order  Order  of  Selection 


of 

1st 

2d 

3d 

4th 

5th 

Tot. 

Expos. 

P 

F 

T 

P 

F 

T 

P 

F 

T 

P 

F 

T 

P 

F 

T 

P 

F 

Tot. 

Rg 

2 

2 

4 

4 

2 

6 

6 

2 

8 

1 

2 

3 

3 

2 

5 

16 

10 

26 

1  st  Rt 

8 

3 

11 

1 

3 

4 

4 

2 

6 

1 

5 

6 

2 

2 

4 

16 

15 

3i 

T 

10 

5 

15 

5 

5 

10 

10 

4 

14 

2 

7 

9 

5 

4 

9 

32 

25 

57 

Rg 

3 

— 

3 

8 

6 

14 

1 

3 

4 

3 

3 

6 

5 

2 

7 

20 

14 

34 

2d  Rt 

2 

4 

6 

5 

— 

5 

1 

4 

5 

8 

3 

11 

3 

3 

6 

19 

14 

33 

T 

5 

4 

9 

13 

6 

19 

2 

7 

9 

11 

6 

17 

8 

5 

13 

39 

28 

67 

Rg 

1 

— 

1 

5 

6 

11 

3 

4 

7 

5 

4 

9 

3 

5 

8 

1 7 

19 

3d 

3d  Rt 

5 

5 

10 

2 

3 

5 

4 

2 

6 

5 

1 

6 

5 

3 

8 

21 

14 

35 

T 

6 

5 

11 

7 

9 

16 

7 

6 

13 

10 

5 

15 

8 

8 

16 

38 

33 

7 1 

Rg 

1 

— 

1 

6 

3 

9 

7 

4 

11 

5 

1 

6 

6 

4 

10 

25 

12 

37 

4th  Rt 

2 

2 

4 

8 

3 

11 

4 

2 

6 

1 

7 

8 

4 

1 

5 

19 

15 

34 

T 

3 

2 

5 

14 

6 

20 

11 

6 

17 

6 

8 

14 

10 

5 

15 

44 

27 

7i 

Rg 

1 7 

20 

37 

3 

1 

4 

3 

— 

3 

1 

3 

4 

2 

— 

2 

26 

24 

50 

5th  Rt 

10 

4 

14 

2 

5 

7 

2 

4 

6 

3 

1 

4 

3 

— 

3 

20 

14 

34 

T 

27 

24 

5i 

5 

6 

11 

5 

4 

9 

4 

4 

8 

5 

— 

5 

46 

38 

84 

Rg 

24 

22 

46 

26 

18 

44 

20 

13 

33 

15 

13 

28 

19 

13 

32 

104 

79 

183 

Tot.  Rt 

27 

18 

45 

18 

14 

32 

15 

H 

29 

18 

17 

35 

17 

9 

26 

95 

72 

id7 

Total 

5i 

40 

9i 

44 

32 

76 

35 

27 

62 

33 

30 

63 

3d 

22 

58 

199 

I5i 

350 

Order 

Selections 

of 

Pictures 

Figures 

Expos. 

Rg 

Rt 

T 

Rg 

Rt 

T 

Total 

pc 

pc 

pc 

pc 

pc 

pc 

pc 

1st 

id 

53 

16 

53 

32  53 

10 

38 

15  58 

25 

48 

57 

5i 

2d 

20 

67 

19 

63 

39  65 

14 

54 

14  54 

28 

54 

67 

do 

3d 

17 

57 

21 

70 

38  64 

19 

73 

14  54 

33 

64 

7 1 

63 

4th 

25 

83 

19 

63 

44  73 

12 

4d 

15  58 

27 

52 

7 1 

63 

5th 

26 

87 

20 

67 

4d  77 

24 

92 

14  54 

38 

73 

84 

75 

Total 

104 

95 

199 

79 

72 

151 

350 

Total 

pc 

69 

63 

6d 

di 

55 

58 

62 

Total 

Pictures 

exposed 

:  Rg.  150 

_ 

Rt.  150 

—  total 

300 

Total  Figures 

exposed 

:  Rg.  130 

— 

Rt.  130 

—  total  2do 

Total 

Cards 

exposed 

:  Rg.  280 

— 

Rt.  280 

—  total  560 

Total 

Pictures 

selected 

:  Rg.  104 

— 

Rt.  95 

—  total 

199 

Total  Figures 

selected 

:  Rg.  79 

— 

Rt.  72 

—  total 

151 

Total 

Cards 

seleoted 

:  Rg.  183 

— 

Rt.  167 

—  total 

350 

56 


JOHAN  L1LJENCRANT S 


Table  XXVII 
Distribution  of  Selections 

Computed  from  experiments  with  pictures  (P)  and  figures  (F)  in  which  5  cards  are  ex- 


posed  in 

Order 

of 

Expos. 

Rg 

1st  Rt 

succession. 

1st 
P  F 

3  1 

4  1 

T 

4 

5 

Recognition  (Rg)  and  Retention 

Subject:  E-n 

Order  of  Selection 

2d  3d  4th 

PFTPFT  PF 

426  4  5  9  15 
224  235  24 

(Rt) 

T  P 

6  7 

6  3 

5th  Tot. 

F  T  P  F 

6  13  19  19 

5  8  13  15 

Tot. 

38 

28 

T 

7 

2 

9 

6 

4  10 

6 

8 

14 

3 

9 

12 

10 

11  21  32 

34 

66 

Rg 

4 

— 

4 

6 

10  16 

4 

3 

7 

5 

2 

7 

— 

— 

-  19 

15 

34 

2d  Rt 

3 

3 

6 

2 

7  9 

4 

2 

6 

2 

3 

5 

2 

1  : 

5  13 

16 

29 

T 

7 

3 

10 

8 

17  25 

8 

5 

13 

7 

5 

12 

2 

1  3  32 

3i 

63 

Rg 

4 

1 

5 

3 

5  8 

4 

2 

6 

5 

3 

8 

2 

5  7  18 

16 

34 

3d  Rt 

3 

2 

5 

2 

6  8 

4 

3 

7 

3 

2 

5 

3 

1  4  15 

14 

29 

T 

7 

3 

10 

5 

11  16 

8 

5 

13 

8 

5 

13 

5 

6  it 

[  33 

30 

63 

Rg 

1 

3 

4 

3 

3  6 

5 

3 

8 

4 

5 

9 

3 

2  ‘ 

5  16 

16 

32 

4th  Rt 

5 

3 

8 

2 

3  5 

4 

4 

8 

4 

1 

5 

1 

4  1 

5  16 

15 

3i 

T 

6 

6 

12 

5 

6  11 

9 

7 

16 

8 

6 

14 

4 

6  10  32 

3i 

63 

Rg 

14 

18 

32 

4 

-  4 

3 

2 

5 

2 

1 

3 

1 

1  2  24 

22 

46 

5  th  Rt 

6 

5 

11 

4 

-  4 

1 

3 

4 

3 

5 

8 

2 

2  4  16 

15 

3i 

T 

20 

23 

43 

8 

-  8 

4 

5 

9 

5 

6 

11 

3 

3  t 

i  40 

37 

77 

Rg 

26 

23 

49 

20 

20  40 

20 

15 

35 

1 7 

16 

33 

13 

14  27  96 

88 

184 

Tot.  Rt 

21 

14 

35 

12 

18  30 

15 

15 

30 

14 

15 

29 

11 

13  24  73 

75 

148 

Total 

47 

37 

84 

32 

38  70 

35 

30 

65 

3i 

3i 

62 

24 

27  51  169  163 

332 

Order 

Selections 

of 

Pictures 

Figures 

Expos. 

Rg 

Rt 

T 

Rg 

Rt 

r 

r 

Total 

pc 

pc 

pc 

pc 

pc 

pc 

pc 

1st 

19 

63 

13 

43 

32 

53 

19 

-  73 

15 

58 

34 

65 

66 

59 

2d 

19 

63 

13 

43 

32 

53 

15 

58 

16 

62 

3i 

60 

63 

56 

3d 

18 

60 

15 

50 

33 

55 

16 

62 

14 

54 

50 

58 

63 

56 

4th 

16 

53 

16 

53 

32 

53 

16 

62 

15 

58 

3i 

60 

63 

56 

5th 

24 

80 

16 

53 

40 

67 

22 

85 

15 

58 

37 

71 

77 

69 

Total 

96 

73 

169 

88 

75 

163 

332 

Tot.  pc 

62 

49 

56 

68 

60 

63 

60 

Total  Pictures 

exposed  :  Rg.  150  — 

Rt. 

150 

—  total  300 

Total  Figu 

res 

exposed  :  Rg.  130  — 

Rt. 

130 

—  total  260 

Total  Cards 

exposed  :  Rg.  280  — 

Rt.  280 

—  total  560 

Total  Pictures 

selected :  Rg.  96  — 

Rt. 

73 

—  total  169 

Total  Figu 

res 

selected :  Rg.  88  — 

Rt. 

75 

—  total  163 

Total  Cards 

0 

selected  :  Rg.  184  — 

Rt.  148 

—  total  332 

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CM  CM 

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1  iN 

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91  rH 

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rH  rH 

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1  1 

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CO 

rH  | 

rH 

1  1 

1 

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rH 

05 

rH 

Ph 

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rH  eo 

1  eo 

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1  rH 

n 

1  1 

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91 

05  O 
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rH 

1  rH 

rH 

91  eo 

no 

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HJH 

rH  rH 

91 

1  rH 

rH 

1  1 

1 

1  1 

1 

1  1 

1 

44 

35 

© 

b- 

4-> 

05  fa 

rH 

rH  ^ 

(N 

eo  eo 

CO 

1  1 

1 

rH  91 

eo 

IP  CO 

rH 

rH 

rH  | 

rH 

1  rH 

rH 

1  1 

1 

1  1 

1 

*  1 

1 

rH  CO 
rH  ?H 

rj< 

91 

Oh 

1  1 

1 

eo  co 

a 

1  rH 

rH 

rH  rH 

91 

C5  <N 

rH  rH 

rH 

CO 

1  rH 

rH 

i  i 

1 

1  1 

1 

1  1 

1 

1  1 

1 

co  CM 

CM  CM 

ns 

Hf 

Order 

of 

Expos. 

bD-W 

Ph  Ph 

■M 

01 

rH 

EH 

bC+j 

PP  PP 

03 

N 

Eh 

fce+j 

PPpp 

'O 

eo 

Eh 

tb  -t-J 

WPP 

a3 

4-J 

EH 

4-» 

PP  Ph 

J3 

-M 

IO 

Eh 

\ 

bu+j 

pppp 

X3 

+-> 

CO 

Eh 

bC+j 

PPpp 

4-> 

h 

R  g 
8th  Rt 

H 

R  e 

9th  Rt 

Eh 

bC  -m 

pp  pp 

XI 

4-5 

o 

rH 

Eh 

R  g 

Tot.  Rt 

Total 

;| 


58 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANTS 


TABLE  XXVIII  (Continued) 

Distribution  of  Selections 

Computed  from  experiments  with  pictures  (P)  and  figures  (F)  in  which  10  cards  are 

exposed  in  succession. 

Recognition  (Rg)  and  Retention  (Rt) 

Subject:  H-n 


Order 

of 

Pictures 

Expos. 

R  S 

Rt 

T 

pc 

pc 

pc 

1st 

20 

87 

21 

91 

41 

89 

2d 

19 

83 

22 

96 

41 

89 

3d 

19 

83 

17 

74 

36 

78 

4  th 

21 

91 

21 

91 

42 

91 

5  th 

20 

87 

21 

91 

41 

89 

6th 

21 

91 

20 

87 

41 

89 

7  th 

20 

87 

22 

96 

42 

91 

8th 

21 

91 

16 

70 

37 

80 

9th 

19 

83 

18 

78 

37 

80 

10th 

21 

91 

20 

87 

41 

89 

Total 

201 

198 

399 

Total  pc. 

87 

86 

87 

Figures 


Rg 

Rt 

T 

Total 

pc 

pc 

pc 

pc 

ll 

85 

11 

85 

22 

85 

63 

87 

9 

69 

9 

69 

18 

69 

59 

79 

13 

100 

11 

85 

24 

92 

60 

83 

13 

100 

12 

92 

25 

96 

67 

93 

11 

85 

11 

85 

22 

85 

63 

87 

12 

92 

13 

100 

25 

96 

66 

92 

13 

100 

12 

92 

25 

96 

67 

93 

12 

92 

11 

85 

23 

90 

60 

83 

13 

100 

11 

85 

24 

92 

61 

85 

11 

85 

11 

85 

22 

85 

63 

87 

118 

112 

230 

629 

91 

86 

88 

87 

Total  Pictures  exposed:  Rg  230  —  Rt  230  —  total  460 

Total  Figures  exposed:  Rg  130  —  Rt  130  —  total  260 

Total  Cards  exposed:  Rg  360  —  Rt  360  —  total  720 

Total  Pictures  selected:  Rg  201  —  Rt  198  —  total  399 

Total  Figures  selected:  Rg  118  —  Rt  112  —  total  230 

Total  Cards  selected:  Rg  319  —  Rt  310  —  total  629 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


59 


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TO 

1  TO 

TO 

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4 

to  in 

t- 

rM  TO 

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4 

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er  © 

rM  rM 

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in  oo 

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TO 

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4 

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1  TO 

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00  00 

rM  rM 

fcC+j 

60 

60+j 

60  -t-> 

60  mm 

60  4-i 

60  MJ 

60  -*-> 

60  mm 

be  mm 

60 

g 

«« 

Eh 

«  PS 

Eh 

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Eh 

Pm  Pm 

EH 

P5« 

E< 

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Eh 

Pm  Pm 

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KK 

Eh 

Pm  PS 

Eh 

«  tf 

8, 

40 

XJ 

•d 

A 

xj 

xj 

XX 

XJ 

4-> 

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02 

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•a 

M-> 

40 

MM 

M-> 

MM 

40 

o 

p 

©  w 

rH 

TO 

TO 

4 

1© 

© 

t- 

00 

C* 

rH 

Eh 

Total  36  20  56  33  21  54  30  18  48  30  16  46  28  14  42  31  13  44  22  11  33  22  14  36  16  10  26  23  8  21  261  145  406 


6o 


JOHAN  LILJENCRA NTS 


TABLE  XXIX  (Continued) 

Distribution  of  Selections 

Computed  from  experiments  with  pictures  (P)  and  figures  (F)  in  which  10  cards  ar® 

exposed  in  succession. 

Recognition  (IRg)  and  Retention  (Rt) 

Subject :  D-n 

Order 

of  Pictures  Figures 


Expos. 

Rg 

Rt 

T 

Rg 

Rt 

T 

Total 

pc 

pc 

pc 

pc 

pc 

pc 

pc 

1st 

15 

83 

15 

83 

30 

83 

7 

54 

8 

62 

15 

58 

45 

71 

2d 

15 

83 

14 

78 

29 

81 

9 

69 

3 

23 

12 

46 

41 

66 

3d 

14 

78 

15 

83 

29 

81 

9 

69 

9 

69 

18 

69 

47 

76 

4th 

10 

56 

12 

67 

22 

61 

9 

69 

10 

77 

19 

73 

41 

66 

5th 

12 

67 

16 

89 

28 

78 

8 

62 

10 

77 

18 

69 

46 

74 

6th 

14 

78 

14 

78 

28 

78 

7 

54 

6 

46 

13 

50 

41 

66 

7  th 

12 

67 

10 

56 

22 

61 

9 

69 

7 

54 

16 

62 

38 

61 

8th 

13 

72 

11 

61 

24 

67 

7 

54 

6 

46 

13 

50 

37 

60 

9th 

16 

89 

12 

67 

28 

78 

5 

38 

6 

46 

11 

42 

39 

63 

10th 

13 

72 

8 

44 

21 

58 

7 

54 

3 

23 

10 

38 

31 

50 

Total 

134 

127 

261 

77 

68 

145 

406 

Total 

pc. 

74 

71 

73 

59 

52 

56 

65 

Total  Pictures 

exposed: 

Rg  180 

— 

Rt 

180 

—  total 

360 

Total  Figures 

exposed: 

Rg  130 

— 

Rt 

130 

—  total  260 

Total  Cards  exposed : 

Rg  310 

— 

Rt 

310 

—  total  620 

Total  Pictures 

selected: 

Rg  134 

_ 

Rt 

127 

—  total  261 

Total  Figures 

selected: 

Rg  77 

— 

Rt 

68 

—  total 

146 

Total  Cards  selected : 

Rg  211 

Rt 

195 

—  total 

406 

MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


61 


of  pictures  and  of  figures.  In  delayed  recognition  this  influence 
is  not  apparent.  In  immediate  as  well  as  in  delayed  recognition 
of  pictures,  and  in  immediate  recognition  of  figures,  the  first  item 
is  least  well  remembered. 

E-n.  In  immediate  recognition  of  pictures  the  last  card  is  most 
frequently  selected,  next  the  first  and  the  second,  and  least  fre¬ 
quently  the  fourth  card.  In  delayed  recognition  of  pictures  the 
fourth  and  the  fifth  cards  are  most  frequently  selected,  least  fre¬ 
quently  the  first  and  the  second  cards.  In  immediate  recognition 
of  figures  the  last  card  is  most  frequently  selected,  next,  the  first, 
and  least  frequently  the  second  card.  In  delayed  recognition  with 
figures  the  distribution  of  selections  is  more  even,  the  second  card 
being  selected  most,  and  the  third  least  frequently.  Hence,  with 
this  subject,  recency  and  in  less  degree  primacy  have  a  favorable 
influence  on  selection  in  immediate  recognition  both  of  pictures 
and  of  figures.  Recency  has  a  favorable,  and  primacy  an  un¬ 
favorable  influence  on  selection  in  delayed  recognition  of  pic¬ 
tures;  in  delayed  recognition  of  figures  no  such  influence  is  evi¬ 
dent. 

H-n.  Both  in  immediate  and  in  delayed  recognition  of  pictures 
as  well  as  of  figures  the  selections  are  fairly  evenly  distributed 
over  the  various  items  in  the  set,  and  there  is  therefore  no  marked 
influence  of  primacy  and  recency  with  this  subject. 

D-n.  In  delayed  recognition  of  both  materials  the  last  card  is 
selected  with  decreased  frequency.  In  immediate  recognition  this 
is  less  apparent.  In  the  added  results  for  immediate  and  for  de¬ 
layed  recognition  of  pictures  the  first  card  in  order  of  presenta¬ 
tion  is  most  frequently,  and  the  last  card  least  frequently  selected. 
In  the  added  results  for  immediate  and  for  delayed  recognition 
of  figures  the  last  card  is  least  frequently  selected.  It  would 
seem,  then,  that  with  this  subject  recency  has  a  slightly  unfavor¬ 
able  influence  on  selection,  more  marked  in  delayed  than  in  im¬ 
mediate  recognition.  The  added  results  for  pictures  may  indi¬ 
cate  that  primacy  has  a  slightly  favorable  influence  on  selection. 


VI.  COMPARISONS  AND  CONCLUSIONS 

i.  Apprehension 

There  is  a  general  difference  in  apprehension  between  the  va¬ 
rious  subjects  which  will  be  dealt  with  under  the  subsequent  sub¬ 
heading. 

Both  stimulation  time  and  the  character  of  the  material  affect 
apprehension  in  the  defective  subjects. 

Table  XXX1  and  Figure  n  show  the  relation  between  the  aver- 

Table  XXX 

Experiments  with  Pictures  and  Variation  in  Time  of  Exposure 

Immediate  Recognition 

Time  of  Exposure  Total  Decline 


1" 

i/5" 

(per  cent  score) 
1/10"  1/25" 

i/50" 

Absolute 
(per  cent  score) 

Relative 
(per  cent) 

“Normal” 

96 

95 

89 

63 

49 

47 

49 

H-n 

95 

100 

93 

90 

87 

13 

13 

D-n 

68 

63 

57 

30 

15 

53 

78 

McG 

73 

54 

53 

20 

6 

67 

92 

E-n 

32 

37 

35 

— 

— 

37 

100 

age  scores  for  normal  subjects  and  the  scores  for  the  defective 
subjects  in  immediate  recognition  of  pictures.  Comparing  these 
scores  we  find  that  H-n  has  the  highest  general  average  as  well 
as  the  greatest  stability2  which  also  is  greater  than  in  any  of  the 
individual  normal  scores.  The  scores  of  D-n  are  inferior  to  the 
normal  both  in  general  average  and  in  stability,  and  similarly 
those  of  McG  which  are  inferior  also  to  those  of  D-n.  E-n  has 
the  lowest  scores;  the  small  difference  between  his  three  scores 
indicates  that  his  apprehension  is  poor  regardless  of  the  stimula¬ 
tion  time. 

Table  XXI  and  Figure  12  show  the  relation  between  the  aver¬ 
age  scores  for  normal  subjects  and  the  scores  for  the  defective 
subjects  in  immediate  recognition  of  figures.  The  scores  of  H-n 
are  superior  to  the  average  normal  both  as  regards  general  aver- 

1  The  “relative  decline”  in  tables  XXX-XXXVII  is  measured  in  percentage 
of  the  highest  score. 

2  We  measure  stability  in  terms  of  relative  decline. 

62 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


63 


Fig.  11. — Pictures.  Variation  in  Time  of  Exposure.  Per  cent  score. 

Fig.  12. — Figures.  Variation  in  Time  of  Exposure.  Per  cent  score. 

Both  figures  show  the  average  results  for  the  normal  subjects  and  the  indi¬ 
vidual  results  for  the  defective  subjects. 

Table  XXXI 

Experiments  with  Figures  and  Variation  in  Time  of  Exposure 

Immediate  Recognition 

Time  of  Exposure  Total  Decline 

(per  cent  score)  Absolute  Relative 


1" 

i/5" 

1/10" 

1/25" 

i/50" 

(per  cent  score) 

(per  cent) 

“Normal" 

87 

68 

59 

50 

37 

50 

58 

H-n 

95 

85 

83 

80 

80 

15 

16 

D-n 

55 

37 

40 

10 

5 

50 

9i 

McG 

50 

27 

15 

10 

8 

42 

84 

E-n 

52 

53 

35 

23 

— 

53 

100 

64 


JOHAN  L1LJENCRANTS 


age  and  stability,  moreover,  they  show  greater  stability  than  any 
individual  normal  series  of  scores  ( cf .  Table  II).  The  scores  of 
D-n  are  inferior  to  the  normal  both  as  regards  general  average 
and  stability.  The  scores  of  McG  are  further  inferior  to  the  nor¬ 
mal  in  general  average,  although  they  show  somewhat  greater 
stability  than  those  of  D-n.  The  general  average  for  E-n  is 
slightly  superior  to  that  for  D-n  but  inferior  to  the  normal.  If, 
however,  we  compare  his  first  four  scores  with  those  of  D-n  and 
of  McG,  we  find  a  greater  stability  in  the  scores  of  E-n. 

Thus  it  may  be  concluded  that  pictures  offer  greater  facility 
for  apprehension  than  figures  with  normal  subjects  and  with 
H-n,  D-n,  and  McG,  but  in  the  case  of  E-n  the  reverse  is  true. 
Apprehension  declines  with  a  gradual  reduction  in  the  time  of  ex¬ 
posure,  more  rapidly  with  figures  than  with  pictures  in  most  cases, 
but  more  rapidly  with  pictures  than  with  figures  in  the  case  of 
McG.  The  least  decline  is  shown  by  H-n,  both  with  pictures  and 
with  figures;  the  other  defective  subjects  show  greater  relative 
decline  than  is  found  in  the  average  normal  results  with  both 
materials.  E-n  shows  the  greatest  decline  with  both  materials. 
D-n  shows  the  next  greatest  decline  with  figures,  and  McG  with 
pictures. 

2.  Span  of  Memory 

Under  this  sub-heading  we  shall  deal  with  the  results  in  ex¬ 
periments  for  immediate  recognition  and  with  variation  in  num¬ 
ber  of  cards. 

Table  XXXII  and  Figure  13  show  the  relation  between  the 

Table  XXXII’ 

Experiments  with  Pictures  and  Variation  in  Number  of  Cards 


Immediate  Recognition 
Number  of  Cards 

(per  cent  score)  Total  Decline 


3 

5 

7 

9 

(-) 

Absolute 

Relative 

5 

10 

15 

20 

(25) 

(per  cent  score)  (per  cent) 

“Normal” 

100 

100 

94 

91 

(87) 

9 

9 

H-n 

100 

100 

100 

90 

(-) 

10 

10 

D-n 

60 

63 

63 

60 

(-) 

3 

5 

McG 

67 

68 

52 

44 

(-) 

24 

35 

E-n 

33 

46 

33 

33 

(-) 

13 

28 

MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


65 


Number  of  Cards 

Fig.  13. — Pictures.  Variation  in  Number  of  Cards.  Per  cent  score. 

Fig.  14. — Figures.  Variation  in  Number  of  Cards.  Per  cent  score. 

Both  figures  show  the  average  results  for  the  normal  subjects  and  the  indi¬ 
vidual  results  for  the  defective  subjects. 

average  scores  for  normal  subjects  and  the  scores  for  the  defective 
in  experiments  with  pictures.  In  each  series  of  scores  the  high¬ 
est  results  are  reached  with  the  “normal”  set  of  cards.  The  re¬ 
sults  of  H-n  are  on  a  par  with  the  average  normal  results,  those 
of  McG  and  of  D-n  are  considerably,  and  those  of  E-n  greatly, 
below  the  normal.  With  an  increased  number  of  cards  to  the  set 


66 


JOHAN  LIUENCRANTS 


the  score  of  H-n  declines  more  sharply  than  the  normal  score. 
The  average  decline  in  his  score  is  slightly  greater  than  that  in 
the  normal.  The  decline  in  the  score  of  D-n  is  much  smaller  than 
that  in  the  normal,  giving  the  impression  that  within  the  limits 
of  the  experiment  she  is  able  to  recognize  a  more  or  less  constant 
proportion  of  items.  The  score  of  McG  shows  the  greatest  ab¬ 
solute  as  well  as  relative  decline.  The  score  of  E-n  is  constant 
with  exception  for  the  relatively  high  figure  for  the  “normal”  set. 

Table  XXXIII  and  Figure  14  show  the  relation  between  the 

Table  XXXIII 

Experiments  with  Figures  and  Variation  in  Number  of  Cards 

Immediate  Recognition 
Number  of  Cards 

(per  cent  score)  Total  Decline 


3 

5 

7 

9 

(-) 

Absolute 

Relative 

5 

10 

15 

20 

(25) 

(per  cent  score 

)(per  cent) 

“Normal” 

90 

81 

68 

62 

(56) 

28 

31 

H-n 

85 

85 

80 

60 

(-) 

25 

29 

D-n 

30 

37 

27 

20 

(-) 

1 7 

57 

McG 

33 

27 

7 

0 

(-) 

33 

100 

E-n 

33 

53 

34 

22 

(-) 

3i 

58 

average  scores  for  normal  subjects  and  the  scores  for  the  defec¬ 
tive  in  experiments  with  figures.  In  general  average  the  scores 
of  H-n  are  on  a  par  with  the  normal,  those  of  E-n  are  consider¬ 
ably  lower,  those  of  D-n  are  next,  and  those  of  McG  the  lowest. 
The  scores  of  H-n  show  slightly  less  decline  than  the  normal, 
those  of  McG  show  the  greatest  decline.  The  least  absolute  de¬ 
cline  is  found  for  D-n,  the  relative  decline  for  whom,  however, 
is  considerably  in  excess  of  the  normal.  For  E-n  the  relative  de¬ 
cline  is  about  the  same  as  for  D-n. 

Comparing  these  results  with  those  obtained  in  experiments 
with  pictures  (Table  XXXII)  we  find  that  with  all  but  one  sub¬ 
ject  the  former  are  much  inferior  to  the  latter.  With  E-n  the 
average  “figure”  score  is  but  slightly  inferior  to  the  average 
“picture”  score,  but  this  inferiority  arises  from  the  results  with 
9-card  sets.  For  3-card  sets  the  results  are  the  same  with  both 
materials,  and  the  “figure”  score  is  superior  to  the  “picture” 
score  with  5-  and  7-card  sets.  The  various  scores  show  a  con¬ 
siderably  greater  total  decline  in  experiments  with  figures  than  in 
experiments  with  pictures. 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


6  7 


In  the  defective  subjects  the  span  of  memory  is  thus  decidedly 
greater  for  pictures  than  for  figures  in  all  but  one  case  in  which 
with  a  limited  number  of  items  the  opposite  is  true. 

In  his  experiments  on  normal  subjects  with  advertisements  for 
visual  stimulation  Strong  found  a  steady  decrease  in  the  pro¬ 
portion  of  advertisements  that  could  be  recognized  as  the  series 
increased.3  This  is  found  both  with  pictures  and  with  figures  in 
our  experiments  with  normal  subjects.  What  has  been  said  in 
the  foregoing  indicates  a  more  irregular  influence  of  this  factor 
in  experiments  with  defective  subjects,  and  especially  with  those 
whose  memory  defect  is  considerable. 

3.  Retention 

The  differences  between  the  scores  for  delayed  and  for  imme¬ 
diate  recognition  in  experiments  with  pictures  and  variation  in 
time  of  exposure  with  normal  and  with  defective  subjects  are 
shown  in  Table  XXXIV.  H-n  shows  less  difference  than  is  found 

Table  XXXIV 

Experiments  with  Figures  and  Variation  in  Time  of  Exposure 
Differences  between  Delayed  and  Immediate  Recognition 


Time  of  Exposure 

Average  Difference 

(per  cent  score) 

Absolute 

Relative 

1" 

i/5" 

1/10" 

1/25" 

i/5o" 

(per  cent  score)  (per  cent) 

“Normal” 

1 

2 

3 

2 

9 

34 

4-3 

H-n 

0 

0 

0 

0 

7 

1.4 

1-5 

D-n 

8 

6 

4 

10 

10 

7.6 

16.3 

M-G 

13 

21 

20 

0 

-1 

10.6 

25-7 

E-n 

1 

10 

19 

— 

— 

6.0 

28.8 

for  the  average  normal.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that 
with  the  normal  subjects  the  retention  time  was  increased  from 
3  to  5  minutes.  E-n  has  the  greatest  average  relative  difference, 
with  McG  a  close  second.  The  average  difference  for  D-n  is  con¬ 
siderably  in  excess  of  that  for  the  normal.  The  difference  for 
the  normal  and  for  H-n  shows  a  tendency  to  increase  with  de¬ 
creasing  stimulation  time.  This  tendency  is  clearly  marked  for 
E-n  with  exposures  of  1",  1/5",  and  1/10",  less  clearly  for  D-n. 

Table  XXXV  shows  the  differences  between  the  scores  for  de- 

3  The  Effect  of  Length  of  Series  upon  Recognition  Memory,  by  Edward  K. 
Strong,  Jr.  Psychol.  Rev.,  1912,  XIX,  pp.  447  et  seq. 


68 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANTS 


Table  XXXV 

Experiments  with  Pictures  and  Variation  in  Number  of  Cards 
Differences  between  Delayed  and  Immediate  Recognition 
Number  of  Cards 


(per  cent  score) 

Average  Difference 

3 

5 

7 

9 

(-) 

Absolute 

Relative 

5 

10 

15 

20 

(25) 

(per  cent  score)  (per  cent) 

“Normal” 

0 

2 

4 

10 

(16) 

4.0 

4.2 

H-n 

0 

0 

17 

10 

(-) 

6.8 

6.9 

D-n 

0 

6 

36 

32 

(-) 

18.5 

30.1 

McG 

34 

32 

28 

36 

(-) 

32.5 

5&5 

E-n 

33 

18 

28 

33 

(-) 

28.0 

77.2 

layed  and  for  immediate  recognition  in  experiments  with  pictures 
and  variation  in  number  of  cards.  The  average  difference  for 
H-n  is  slightly  greater  than  the  average  normal,  but  not  in  excess 
of  that  for  C-h  among  the  normal  subjects.  For  the  other  de¬ 
fective  subjects  the  average  difference  is  far  in  excess  of  the 
average  normal.  A  tendency  of  the  difference  to  increase  with 
an  increasing  number  of  cards  is  more  clearly  marked  in  the 
normal  than  in  the  other  results.  With  H-n  and  D-n  the  differ¬ 
ence  is  greatest  for  the  15-card  set,  it  decreases  for  the  20-card 
set.  With  the  remaining  subjects  it  is  more  irregularly  dis¬ 
tributed,  with  a  high  figure  for  the  3-card  set. 

Table  XXXVI  shows  the  differences  between  the  scores  for 


Table  XXXVI 


Experiments  with  Figures  and  Variation  in  Tune  of  Exposure 


Differences  between  Delayed  and  Immediate  Recognition 


Time  of  Exposure 

Average 

Difference 

(per  cent  score) 

Absolute 

Relative 

1" 

i/5" 

1/10" 

1/25"  1/50" 

(per  cent  score)(per  cent) 

“Normal” 

10 

6 

6 

10  10 

8.4 

14.0 

H-n 

15 

8 

8 

5  10 

9-9 

10.9 

D-n 

1 7 

1 7 

19 

10  35 

19.6 

66.7 

McG 

10 

14 

5 

0  28 

11.4 

51.8 

E-n 

22 

21 

20 

16  — 

15.8 

48-5 

delayed 

and  for  immediate  recognition  in 

experiments  with  fig- 

ures  and  variation  in  time  of  exposure.  The  average  relative 
difference  for  H-n  is  smaller  than  that  for  the  average  normal, 
that  for  E-n  is  greatly  in  excess  of  the  normal  and  that  for  McG 
slightly  greater  than  that  for  E-n.  D-n  has  the  greatest  average 
relative  difference.  The  differences  are  unevenly  distributed  over 
the  various  exposures,  with  a  tendency  to  increase  with  the  long- 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


69 


est  and  the  shortest  exposures.  The  difference  for  E-n  decreases 
when  the  time  of  exposure  is  reduced. 

Table  XXXVII  shows  the  differences  between  the  scores  for 

Table  XXXVII 

Experiments  with  Figures  and  Variation  in  Number  of  Cards 

Differences  between  Delayed  and  Immediate  Recognition 
Number  of  Cards 

(per  cent  score)  Average  Difference 


3 

5 

7 

9 

(-) 

Absolute 

Relative 

5 

10 

15 

20 

(25) 

(per  cent  score)(per  cent) 

“Normal” 

6 

7 

4 

6 

(  4) 

5-8 

7.6 

H-n 

10 

8 

3 

10 

(-) 

7-8 

1 0.0 

D-n 

10 

1 7 

27 

20 

(-) 

18.5 

64.9 

McG 

0 

14 

14 

0 

(-) 

7.0 

41.8 

E-n 

0 

21 

5 

5 

(-) 

7-8 

21.8 

delayed  and  for  immediate  recognition  in  experiments  with  fig¬ 
ures  and  variation  in  number  of  cards.  The  average  difference 
for  H-n  is  greater  than  the  average  normal,  the  average  relative 
difference  for  E-n  is  about  twice  that  for  H-n,  that  for  McG 
about  twice,  and  that  for  D-n  about  three  times  that  for  E-n. 
The  distribution  of  the  differences  over  the  various  sets  of  cards 
is  irregular.  In  the  case  of  McG  it  is  confined  to  the  two  middle 
sets,  in  that  of  E-n  it  is  concentrated  on  the  normal  set. 

We  reach  the  following  conclusions:  the  retention  interval  re¬ 
duces  the  results  for  recognition  both  with  normal  and  with  de¬ 
fective  subjects;  with  normal  subjects  this  reduction  is  greater 
with  figures  than  with  pictures ;  with  pictures  it  increases  with  the 
number  in  the  series,  with  figures  no  such  increase  is  apparent; 
with  pictures  it  also  increases  with  a  reduction  in  time  of  ex¬ 
posure;  with  figures  there  is  less  difference  for  exposures  of 
1/5"  and  1/10"  than  for  longer  and  for  shorter  exposures. 

With  H-n  the  influence  of  the  retention  interval  in  experiments 
with  pictures  is  less  marked  than  in  the  average  normal  results 
when  the  “normal”  set  is  used.  In  experiments  with  figures  the 
sum  of  the  differences  for  the  10-card  and  the  15-card  sets  is  the 
same  with  H-n  as  in  the  average  normal  results.  In  experiments 
with  pictures  as  well  as  with  figures  the  sum  of  the  differences 
for  the  15-card  and  the  20-card  sets  is  greater  with  H-n  than  in 
the  average  normal  results.  Reduction  in  time  of  exposure  has 


70 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANTS 


less  detrimental  effect  on  retention  with  H-n  than  with  the  aver¬ 
age  normal  in  experiments  with  pictures,  and  about  the  same 
effect  with  both  in  experiments  with  figures.  Thus  the  power  of 
retention  of  H-n  is  not  inferior  to  the  average  normal  with 
smaller  sets  of  cards,  but  an  increase  of  the  number  in  the  series 
has  a  more  detrimental  effect  on  the  power  of  retention  of  H-n 
than  on  that  of  the  average  normal. 

With  the  remaining  subjects  the  retention  interval  reduces  the 
results  in  recognition  in  various  degrees,  both  with  pictures  and 
with  figures. 

D-n.  The  respective  relations  between  her  average  relative  dif¬ 
ferences  and  those  in  the  normal  results  are : 

Pictures  and  variation  in  time  of  exp.  .264 

“  “  "  “  no.  of  cards  .140 

Figures  “  “  “  time  of  exp.  .210 

“  “  “  “  no.  of  cards  .117 

The  influence  of  the  retention  time  factor  is  relatively  greater 

with  figures  than  with  pictures,  and  there  is  a  further  reduction 

with  an  increase  of  the  number  in  the  series. 

McG.  The  respective  relations  between  his  average  relative 
differences  and  those  in  the  normal  results  are : 

Pictures  and  variation  in  time  of  exp.  .167 

“  “  “  “  no.  of  cards  .074 

Figures  “  “  “  time  of  exp.  .270 

“  “  “  “  no.  of  cards  .182 

The  influence  of  the  retention  time  factor  is  relatively  greater 

with  pictures  than  with  figures.  With  pictures  there  is  a  further 

decrease  when  there  is  a  shortening  in  the  time  of  exposure;  with 

figures  the  opposite  tendency  obtains.  There  is  little  change  in 

this  influence  consequent  upon  an  increase  of  the  number  in  the 

series  with  pictures;  with  figures  no  influence  is  noticeable  with 

series  of  3  and  9  cards. 

E-n.  The  respective  relations  between  his  average  relative  dif¬ 
ferences  and  those  in  the  normal  results  are  : 

Pictures  and  variation  in  time  of  exp.  .150 

“  “  “  no.  of  cards  .054 

Figures  “  “  “  time  of  exp.  .289 

“  “  “  “  no.  of  cards  .349 

The  influence  of  the  retention  time  factor  is  relatively  greater 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


7 1 


with  pictures  than  with  figures.  With  pictures  it  increases,  with 
figures  it  decreases  when  the  time  of  exposure  is  reduced.  With 
pictures  it  increases  with  an  increase  of  the  number  in  the  series; 
with  figures  it  is  greater  in  series  of  5  cards  than  in  longer  series, 
and  it  is  absent  in  series  of  3  cards. 

Differences  in  purpose  and  method  exclude  a  direct  compari¬ 
son  between  the  results  obtained  by  Moore  and  those  of  the  pres¬ 
ent  investigation.4 

4.  Recognition  and  Recall 

The  relative  differences  between  recognition  and  recall  in  the 
average  scores  for  normal  subjects  in  experiments  with  five  vari¬ 
ations  in  time  of  exposure  may  be  expressed  as  follows,  counting 
from  1 "  to  1/50"  exposure:  11,  15,  15,  — 10,  — 14  per  cent.5 
In  other  words,  the  recognition  scores  are  superior  to  the  recall 
scores  for  1 "  to  1/10"  exposures,  and  the  reverse  is  true  for 
shorter  exposures.  This  relation  does  not  obtain  in  all  the  in¬ 
dividual  scores.  With  all  the  normal  subjects,  however,  the  re¬ 
cognition  scores  are  superior  to  the  recall  scores  for  1"  and  1/5" 
exposures  (see  Table  I).  In  experiments  with  variation  in  num¬ 
ber  of  cards  the  corresponding  relative  differences  for  the  aver¬ 
age  normal  scores  are,  counting  from  sets  of  5  to  sets  of  20  (25) 
cards:  o,  6,  9,  21,  (24  per  cent).  Hence,  the  results  in  recall 
become  increasingly  inferior  to  those  in  recognition  as  the  num¬ 
ber  in  the  series  increases. 

The  average  normal  recall  scores  and  the  recall  scores  for  the 
defective  subjects  are  shown  in  Figures  15  and  16. 

H-n.  While  H-n  has  very  high  recognition  scores  his  recall 
scores  are  considerably  below  the  average  normal  recall  scores, 
and  also  inferior  to  any  of  the  individual  normal  recall  scores. 
His  recall  score  remains  constant  for  exposures  from  1 "  to 
1/25"  and  declines  for  exposure  of  1/50".  The  following  rela¬ 
tive  differences  between  recognition  and  recall  appear  in  experi- 

4  Op.  cit. 

5  These  figures  express  the  difference  between  the  two  scores  in  percentage 
of  the  highest.  The  positive  values  indicate  that  the  recognition  score  is 
highest,  negative  that  the  recall  score  is  highest. 


72 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANTS 


Fig.  15. — Variation  in  Time  of  Exposure.  Per  cent  scores. 

Fig.  16. — Variation  in  Number  of  Cards.  Per  cent  scores. 

Both  figures  show  the  average  results  for  normal  subjects  and  the  results 
for  the  defective  subjects  in  Recall. 

ments  with  variation  in  time  of  exposure  :  37,  40,  35,  33,  and 
43  per  cent.  In  experiments  with  variation  in  number  of  cards 
the  corresponding  differences  are,  counted  from  sets  of  5  to  sets 
of  20  cards:  10,  40,  53,  and  28  per  cent.  His  recall  memory  is 
therefore  inferior  to  the  normal;  it  is  not  greatly  affected  by  a 
reduction  in  time  of  exposure,  but  the  proportion  of  items  re- 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


73 


called  decreases  rapidly  with  an  increase  of  the  number  in  the 
series. 

D-n.  In  experiments  with  variation  in  time  of  exposure  the 
relative  differences  between  the  scores  for  recognition  and  for 
recall  are  26,  o,  — 5,  — 40,  and  — 63  per  cent,  respectively.  In 
experiments  with  variation  in  number  of  cards  they  are,  respec¬ 
tively:  — 14,  o,  21,  and  42  per  cent.  Her  recall  scores  are  con¬ 
siderably  lower  than  the  average  normal,  but  they  show  little 
decline  when  the  time  of  exposure  is  reduced.  The  relation  be¬ 
tween  her  recall  and  her  recognition  scores  is,  generally  speak¬ 
ing,  similar  to  that  for  the  average  normal,  with  the  exception 
that  in  her  case  the  differences  for  both  the  longest  and  the  short¬ 
est  exposures  are  greater  than  in  the  case  of  the  average  normal. 
Her  recall  memory  is  superior  to  the  recognition  memory  for  sets 
of  5  cards,  equal  to  the  recognition  memory  for  sets  of  10  cards, 
and  inferior  for  larger  sets.  This  inferiority  increases  at  a  pro¬ 
portionately  higher  rate  than  with  normal  subjects  as  the  number 
in  the  series  is  increased. 

McG.  In  experiments  with  variation  in  time  of  exposure  the 
relative  differences  between  the  scores  for  recognition  and  for 
recall  are,  respectively:  45,  26,  53,  100,  and  - — 40  per  cent.  In 
experiments  with  variation  in  number  of  cards  they  are  for  sets 
of  3,  5,  7,  and  9  cards,  respectively:  — 33,  41,  31,  and  50  per 
cent.  His  recall  scores  fall  greatly  below  the  average  normal  and 
decrease  both  with  a  reduction  in  the  time  of  exposure  and  with 
an  increase  in  the  number  in  the  series.  In  their  relation  to  the 
recognition  scores  they  are  proportionately  inferior  to  the  nor¬ 
mal  recall  scores,  except  for  the  3-card  set  for  which  the  score 
is  perfect. 

E-n.  In  experiments  with  variation  in  time  of  exposure  the 
relative  differences  between  the  scores  for  recognition  and  for 
recall  are  35,  57,  and  57  per  cent,  respectively.  In  experiments 
with  variation  in  number  of  cards  they  are,  respectively:  o,  57, 
36,  and  67  per  cent.  His  recall  scores  are  very  low,  declining 
both  with  a  reduction  in  the  time  of  exposure  and  with  an  increase 
in  the  number  in  the  series.  With  exception  of  that  for  the  3- 


74 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANTS 


card  set  they  are  inferior  to  the  normal  in  their  relation  to  the 
recognition  scores. 

Dr.  Achilles  experimented  with  subjects  afflicted  with  the  Kor- 
sakow  psychosis,  general  paralysis,  brain  syphilis,  and  arterio¬ 
sclerosis,  using  four  kinds  of  material,  viz.,  words,  forms,  prov¬ 
erbs,  and  syllables,  which  were  presented  in  separate  series  of  25 
items,  each  presentation  lasting  50  seconds.  Experiments  were 
made  both  for  recognition  and  for  recall.  In  addition,  a  series  of 
6  pictures  was  presented  for  recognition  only.  The  experimenter 
remarks  that  “the  data  of  all  the  cases  are  not  comparable,  for  the 
conditions  of  the  experiment  were  not  the  same  for  each  patient. 
Some  of  the  patients  were  unable  to  see  well,  and  for  them  it  was 
necessary  to  .  .  .  present  the  material  auditorily.  When  it  was 
possible  .  .  .  the  materials  were  .  .  .  presented  visually.”  She 
concludes  that  “all  show  a  memory  defect  and  the  defect  is  pres¬ 
ent  in  both  recall  and  recognition,”  and  that  “one  finds  the  scores 
among  the  Korsakoffs  lower  than  those  among  the  general  par¬ 
alysis  and  arterio-sclerosis  cases.  There  is  no  striking  difference 
between  the  way  the  diseases  affect  the  recall  and  recognition.”6 
The  tabulated  results7  show  that  the  relation  between  recall  and 
recognition  varies  greatly  with  different  subjects,  and  with  dif¬ 
ferent  materials  for  the  same  subject. 

5.  Primacy  and  Regency 

Table  XXXVIII  shows  the  distribution  of  selections  with  the 
“normal”  set  of  cards  for  the  four  defective  subjects.  It  is 
compiled  from  Tables  XXVI-XXIX.  Tables  XXVIII  and 
XXIX  have  been  reduced  by  combining  the  figures  for  the  first 
and  second,  third  and  fourth  items  exposed,  etc.,  and  similarly 
the  figures  for  the  first  and  second,  third  and  fourth  selections, 
etc. 

On  an  average,  the  last  and  the  next  last  items  exposed  are 
most  frequently,  and  the  third  item  least  frequently  selected  in 
immediate  recognition  of  pictures;  with  figures  the  last  item  is 

6  Op.  cit.,  p.  64. 

7  Ibid.,  p.  65. 


MEMORY  DEFECTS  IN  THE  ORGANIC  PSYCHOSES 


75 


Table  XXXVIII 

Summary  of  Distribution  of  Selections 
Figures  give  per  cent  selections  of  total  number  exposed 


I.  Pictures 
Subjects 


Order  of 

Mc-G 

E- 

-n 

H- 

■n 

D 

-n 

Average 

Exposure 

Rg 

Rt 

Rg 

Rt 

Rg 

Rt 

Rg 

Rt 

Rg 

Rt 

rst  (ist  &  2d) 

53 

53 

63 

43 

85 

93 

83 

81 

71 

68 

2d  (3d  &  4th) 

6  7 

63 

63 

43 

87 

82 

6  7 

75 

71 

66 

3d  (5th  &  6th) 

57 

70 

60 

50 

89 

89 

72 

83 

70 

73 

4th  (7th  &  8th) 

83 

63 

53 

53 

89 

82 

69 

58 

74 

64 

5th  (9th  &  10th) 

87 

67 

80 

53 

87 

82 

81 

56 

85 

65 

Average 

69 

63 

64 

48 

88 

86 

74 

7i 

74 

67 

Av.  diff.  Rg  &  Rt 

6 

15 

2 

3 

7 

Diff.  from  Av. 

—5  - 

-4 

— 10  - 

-19 

+14  +19 

±0  +4 

2. 

Figures 

Order  of 

Mc-G 

E- 

-n 

H- 

n 

D 

-n 

Average 

Exposure 

Rg 

Rt 

Rg 

Rt 

Rg 

Rt 

Rg 

Rt 

Rg 

Rt 

Subjects 

ist  (ist  &  2d) 

38 

58 

73 

58 

77 

77 

62 

42 

63 

59 

2d  (3d  &  4th) 

54 

54 

58 

62 

100 

88 

69 

73 

70 

69 

3d  (5th  &  6th) 

73 

54 

62 

54 

88 

92 

58 

62 

70 

66 

4th  (7  th  &  8th) 

46 

58 

62 

58 

96 

88 

62 

50 

67 

64 

5th  (9th  &  10th) 

92 

54 

85 

58 

92 

85 

46 

35 

79 

58 

Average 

61 

56 

68 

58 

9i 

86 

60 

53 

70 

63 

Av.  diff.  Rg  &  Rt 

5 

10 

5 

7 

7 

Diff.  from  Av. 

— 9  • 

-7 

— 2  ■ 

-5 

+2 1  +23 

— 10  — 

-10 

most  frequently,  and  the  first  item  least  frequently  selected  in  im¬ 
mediate  recognition.  In  delayed  recognition  the  third  item  is 
most  frequently,  and  the  fourth  item  least  frequently  selected 
with  pictures;  with  figures  the  second  item  is  most  frequently, 
and  the  last  item  least  frequently  selected.  Thus  recency  has  a 
marked  effect  on  immediate  recognition  with  both  materials.  In¬ 
dividual  results  have  already  been  described  in  Section  V. , 

6.  Conclusions 

i.  Although  the  defective  subjects  who  were  tested  showed  a 
memory  defect  which  appeared  essentially  the  same  when  clini¬ 
cally  considered,  the  experiments  show  that  the  memory  defect 
varies  in  these  subjects.  The  amnesia  in  the  subjects  under  in¬ 
vestigation  is  due  both  to  faulty  apprehension  and  to  faulty  re¬ 
tention.  Both  recognition  and  recall  are  affected.  The  defect  is 


76 


JOHAN  LILJENCRANTS 


present  with  pictures,  which  may  be  described  in  verbal  terms, 
and  also  with  figures,  in  which  a  verbal  description  is  impossible 
(or  at  least  improbable).  The  memory  for  pictures  is  usually 
better  than  that  for  figures. 

2.  Apprehension  and  retention  abilities  are  affected  to  varying 
degrees  in  the  four  subjects.  The  recall  memory  is  also  serious¬ 
ly  affected.  One  subject  showed  an  impairment  in  recognition 
only  for  a  great  number  of  items  to  be  remembered  simultaneous¬ 
ly.  Although  the  memory  for  pictures  (visual-kinaesthetic-audi- 
tory)  is  usually  better  than  that  for  figures  (purely  (?)  visual), 
in  one  case  the  reverse  was  found. 

3.  The  defective  subjects  investigated  showed,  in  general,  the 
same  effects  as  normal  subjects  in  apprehension  and  memory  fol¬ 
lowing  brief  or  longer  exposures,  and  the  beneficial  effects  of 
primacy,  recency,  and  repetition. 


REFERENCES 


Achilles,  Edith  Mulhall,  Experimental  Studies  in  Recall  and 
Recognition.  Archives  of  Psychol .,  1920,  No.  44. 

Boring,  Edwin  G.,  Learning  in  Dementia  Precox,  Psychol. 
Monog.,  1913,  Vol.  XV. 

Calkins,  Mary  Whiton,  Short  Studies  in  Memory  and  in  As¬ 
sociation  from  the  W ellesley  College  Psychological  Labora¬ 
tory.  Psychol.  Rev.,  September  1898,  Vol.  V.,  No.  5. 

De  Camp,  J.  Edgar,  A  Study  of  Retroactive  Inhibition.  Psy¬ 
chol.  Monog.,  1916. 

Franz,  Shepherd  Ivory,  Handbook  of  Mental  Examination 
Methods.  1919. 

Hart  and  Spearman,  Mental  Tests  of  Dementia.  Journ.  of 
Abnormal  Psychol.,  19 14- 15,  Vol.  IX. 

Kennedy,  Francis,  On  the  Experimental  Investigation  of  Mem¬ 
ory.  Psychol.  Rev.,  September  1898,  Vol.  V.,  No.  5. 

Moore,  Thomas  Vernon,  The  Correlation  between  Memory  and 
Perception  in  the  Presence  of  Diffuse  Cortical  Degeneration. 
Psychol.  Monog.,  1919,  No.  120. 

Robinson,  Edward  Stevens,  Some  Factors  determining  the  De¬ 
gree  of  Retroactive  Inhibition.  Psychol.  Monog.,  1920. 

Strong,  E.  K.,  Jr.,  Effect  of  Length  of  Series  upon  Recognition 
Memory.  Psychol.  Rev.,  1912,  Vol.  XIX. 

White,  William  A.,  Outlines  of  Psychiatry,  1919. 


BF21  .P96V.32 

Memory  defects  in  the  organic 

Princeton  Theological  Seminary-Speer  Library 


1  1012  00008  5383 


